Authored By: Nontokozo
Introduction
In August 2021, millions of Afghan girls woke up to a future that had suddenly disappeared. Classrooms closed, workplaces emptied, and women were gradually removed from public life. The return of the Taliban marked a dramatic turning point for women’s rights in Afghanistan, raising urgent concerns within the international legal community. What had once been a slow but meaningful progression toward gender equality quickly transformed into one of the most severe contemporary regressions in women’s rights. International human rights law recognises that women are entitled to equal dignity, freedom, and opportunities. Foundational instruments such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights establish that all individuals are born free and equal in dignity and rights, and that discrimination on the basis of gender is prohibited.[1]Similarly, international treaties such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights protect women’s rights in various spheres, including access to education, employment opportunities, participation in public and political life, and freedom of movement. [2] Despite these protections, Afghan women have experienced significant restrictions since 2021.
Between 2001 and 2021, Afghanistan witnessed notable improvements in women’s rights. Millions of girls attended school, women entered professional careers, and female political participation increased. [3] However, following the Taliban’s return to power, new policies limited girls’ education, restricted employment opportunities, and imposed strict movement and dress regulations. Human rights organisations such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have documented these developments and raised concerns regarding violations of international human rights obligations.[4] This article argues that the restrictions imposed on Afghan women since 2021 constitute serious violations of international human rights law and undermine broader social and economic development. The article begins with a historical overview of women’s rights in Afghanistan, followed by an analysis of Taliban-imposed restrictions. It then evaluates these developments within the framework of international human rights law, examines their societal impact, and concludes with recommendations aimed at strengthening the protection of women’s rights in Afghanistan.
Historical Background of Women’s Rights in Afghanistan
Understanding the current decline of women’s rights in Afghanistan requires examining the country’s complex historical context. Women’s rights in Afghanistan have never followed a linear path; rather, they have fluctuated significantly depending on political leadership, armed conflict, and social norms. Periods of progress have often been followed by regression, leaving women particularly vulnerable to political transitions and instability.
During the 1960s and 1970s, Afghan women, particularly those living in urban centres such as Kabul, experienced relatively greater freedoms. Women had access to education, employment, and participation in public life. Female students attended universities, women entered professional careers, and some participated in political institutions. However, these advancements were largely limited to urban areas, while rural communities continued to adhere to conservative cultural practices that restricted women’s opportunities and mobility.[5]
The situation deteriorated significantly during the Afghan civil war in the 1990s, which weakened governance structures and created conditions for the rise of the Taliban. After gaining control of Kabul in 1996, the Taliban introduced strict rules based on their interpretation of Islamic law. Women were banned from attending school, prohibited from working outside the home, and required to wear the burqa in public. Women were also restricted from travelling without a male guardian and were excluded from most forms of public participation.[6] These policies had severe consequences, including limited access to health-care and education. Female health-care workers were prevented from working, which further restricted women’s access to medical services, particularly in conservative communities where treatment by male doctors was discouraged.[7]
Following the removal of the Taliban in 2001, Afghanistan entered a period of reconstruction supported by the international community and the United Nations. Significant improvements in women’s rights were recorded during this period. Millions of girls returned to school, women entered higher education, and female representation in government institutions increased. Women also participated in parliament and held leadership positions. Improvements were further reflected in health-care and literacy rates, with maternal mortality declining and women gaining greater access to essential services.[8] Despite these gains, progress remained uneven, particularly in rural areas where cultural barriers and insecurity limited women’s ability to fully exercise their rights.[9]
The progress achieved between 2001 and 2021 proved fragile. In August 2021, the Taliban regained control of Afghanistan following the withdrawal of international forces. Although assurances were initially given regarding women’s rights, new restrictions were quickly introduced, including bans on girls’ secondary education, employment limitations, and restrictions on movement. These developments marked a significant regression in women’s rights and raised serious human rights concerns.[10]
The historical trajectory of women’s rights in Afghanistan therefore reveals a pattern of fluctuating progress shaped by political change. While significant improvements occurred between 2001 and 2021, the return of the Taliban has reversed many of these gains, highlighting the fragile nature of women’s rights in Afghanistan.
Taliban Restrictions on Women’s Rights Since 2021
The return of the Taliban in August 2021 marked a dramatic turning point for women’s rights in Afghanistan. Following the withdrawal of international forces and the collapse of the Afghan government, the Taliban assumed control of the country and began introducing policies that significantly restricted women’s participation in public life. Although Taliban officials initially assured the international community that women’s rights would be respected within Islamic law, these commitments were quickly undermined by a series of decrees limiting women’s access to education, employment, and freedom of movement.[11]
One of the most significant restrictions has been imposed on education. Shortly after assuming power, the Taliban suspended secondary education for girls and later extended this ban to universities. In December 2022, Afghan women were prohibited from attending higher education institutions, effectively preventing them from pursuing tertiary education. These decisions drew widespread international condemnation, with organisations such as the United Nations and Human Rights Watch describing the ban as discriminatory and a violation of fundamental human rights. The restriction on female education has long-term consequences, limiting women’s professional opportunities and undermining Afghanistan’s social and economic development.[12]
In addition to educational barriers, the Taliban have imposed significant restrictions on women’s employment. Female civil servants were instructed to remain at home unless their roles could not be performed by men. Women working in education, health-care, and public administration faced dismissal or suspension. In December 2022, the Taliban further banned women from working in non-governmental organisations, significantly reducing employment opportunities and affecting humanitarian aid delivery. These policies have contributed to increased poverty, particularly among households headed by women.[13]
Restrictions on freedom of movement have also been introduced. Women are required to travel with a male guardian, commonly referred to as a mahram, when travelling long distances. Additionally, strict dress codes have been enforced, requiring women to cover their faces in public spaces. These restrictions significantly limit women’s autonomy and their ability to participate in social and economic activities.[14]
The Taliban have significantly curtailed women’s participation in both public and political spheres. The dissolution of the Ministry of Women’s Affairs and its replacement with the Ministry for the Propagation of Virtue and Prevention of Vice reflects a clear shift away from policies promoting gender equality. In addition, women have been removed from government roles and excluded from decision-making structures, further diminishing their presence and influence within Afghan society. [15]Access to health care has also been adversely affected. Limitations on women’s employment and freedom of movement have restricted their ability to obtain medical services, particularly in rural communities where female health-care professionals play a critical role. As a result, women and girls face heightened vulnerability and reduced access to essential health services.[16]
The overall impact of these restrictions has been profound. Many women in Afghanistan are experiencing rising levels of poverty, increased social isolation, and reduced access to education and employment opportunities. The measures implemented since 2021 mark a substantial setback for women’s rights and raise significant concerns in terms of compliance with international human rights law. Ongoing international engagement is therefore essential to help address these issues and support the protection and advancement of women’s rights in Afghanistan.
International Human Rights Law and Legal Framework
The restrictions imposed on women in Afghanistan since the return of the Taliban raise serious concerns under international human rights law. Women’s rights are protected through a range of international legal instruments that recognise equality, dignity, and non-discrimination as fundamental principles. These frameworks impose obligations on states to respect, protect, and fulfil the rights of women without discrimination. The policies introduced by the Taliban, particularly those affecting education, employment, and freedom of movement, appear inconsistent with these international legal obligations.
One of the primary international instruments protecting women’s rights is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). Article 1 provides that all individuals are born free and equal in dignity and rights, while Article 2 prohibits discrimination, including on the basis of gender. Article 23 further guarantees the right to work and freely choose employment, and Article 26 recognises the right to education. The prohibition on girls’ education and limitations on women’s employment in Afghanistan therefore appear inconsistent with these fundamental protections.[17] Afghanistan is also a party to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, which specifically addresses gender discrimination. Article 10 of CEDAW guarantees equal access to education, while Article 11 protects women’s right to employment and economic participation. The banning of girls from secondary schools and universities, as well as restrictions on women’s employment, raise significant concerns regarding Afghanistan’s compliance with its treaty obligations.[18]
Similarly, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights safeguards core civil and political freedoms. Article 3 establishes equality between men and women, while Article 12 protects the right to freedom of movement. Requirements imposed by the Taliban, such as obliging women to travel with a male guardian and restricting their participation in public life, may therefore amount to violations of these provisions.[19] Furthermore, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights offers additional protections. Article 6 recognises the right to work, Article 12 affirms the right to health, and Article 13 guarantees the right to education. Limitations placed on women’s employment opportunities and access to education undermine these rights and contribute to wider socio- economic difficulties.[20]
International organisations have also highlighted these concerns. The United Nations has repeatedly called for the restoration of women’s rights in Afghanistan, emphasising that gender equality is essential for sustainable development and peace. Similarly, Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have documented widespread discrimination and human rights violations affecting Afghan women.[21] Furthermore, customary international law reinforces the protection of women’s rights. Principles such as equality, dignity, and non-discrimination are widely recognised as binding norms under international law. Even where treaty obligations are disputed, these customary principles continue to apply. Consequently, Afghanistan remains bound by fundamental human rights standards despite changes in governance.[22]
The current situation in Afghanistan therefore presents a significant challenge to international human rights law. The continued erosion of women’s rights undermines internationally recognised protections and threatens broader social and economic development. Ensuring compliance with international legal obligations remains essential to protecting women’s rights and promoting stability in Afghanistan.
Legal and Socio–economic Impact of Taliban Policies on Women in Afghanistan
The restrictions imposed on Afghan women since 2021 not only raise concerns under international human rights law but also have far-reaching socio- economic and legal consequences. The exclusion of women from education, employment, and public life undermines fundamental rights and weakens Afghanistan’s long-term development. While the Taliban have justified these restrictions as consistent with their interpretation of Islamic law and cultural traditions, such justifications conflict with internationally recognised human rights principles and Afghanistan’s treaty obligations.
One of the most significant consequences of Taliban policies is the denial of education to women and girls. Education is widely recognised as a foundational human right and a key driver of economic and social development. The ban on secondary and tertiary education for girls not only limits individual opportunities but also undermines Afghanistan’s future workforce. Studies by the United Nations Development Programme indicate that restricting women’s education contributes to long-term poverty, reduced economic productivity, and increased dependency within households.[23] Girls who are denied education face limited employment prospects, reinforcing gender inequality and perpetuating cycles of poverty.
The restrictions on women’s employment further compound these challenges. Many women previously employed in education, health-care, and civil service sectors have been dismissed or prevented from returning to work. These restrictions disproportionately affect households headed by women, who rely on income to support their families. The United Nations has reported that the exclusion of women from the workforce has significantly reduced household income and increased vulnerability among Afghan families.[24]Additionally, limiting women’s participation in humanitarian organisations has affected the delivery of aid, particularly in communities where female staff are essential to reaching women and children.
Restrictions on women’s freedom of movement and participation in public life also contribute to social isolation and mental health challenges. Women required to travel with male guardians face barriers in accessing education, employment, and health-care services. These limitations undermine women’s autonomy and dignity, raising concerns regarding violations of fundamental human rights. Reports from Human Rights Watch highlight that such restrictions have contributed to increased anxiety, depression, and social marginalisation among Afghan women.[25]
Despite these concerns, some supporters of Taliban policies argue that these restrictions reflect cultural and religious values. The Taliban maintain that their policies are consistent with Islamic principles and necessary to preserve social stability. However, this argument has been widely contested. Islamic scholars and international organisations have emphasised that Islam supports women’s education and participation in society. Countries with predominantly Muslim populations, such as Indonesia and Malaysia, provide examples where women actively participate in education and governance. These examples demonstrate that restrictions imposed in Afghanistan are not universally accepted interpretations of Islamic law.
Furthermore, the Taliban’s policies create inconsistencies within international law. While Afghanistan remains bound by international treaties, enforcement mechanisms remain limited. International human rights law relies heavily on state cooperation, and the absence of accountability mechanisms weakens enforcement. This gap highlights the challenges of ensuring compliance in situations where governing authorities reject international norms.
Recommendations and Future Legal Pathways
Addressing the decline of women’s rights in Afghanistan requires a multifaceted approach involving legal, diplomatic, and humanitarian strategies. The international community must continue to engage with Afghan authorities while promoting compliance with international human rights standards. Diplomatic engagement by the United Nations and regional stakeholders remains essential in advocating for the restoration of women’s rights. Targeted humanitarian assistance is also critical. Supporting education programmes, particularly community-based learning initiatives, may help mitigate the impact of restrictions on girls’ education. Additionally, international organisations can support economic empowerment initiatives for women, including remote employment opportunities and vocational training.
Monitoring and documentation of human rights violations remain equally important. Organisations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch continue to play a vital role in documenting violations and raising awareness. Such documentation strengthens accountability efforts and supports advocacy initiatives. Ultimately, sustainable solutions require the inclusion of Afghan women in decision-making processes. Ensuring women’s participation in governance and policy development is essential for long-term stability and development. The restoration of women’s rights must therefore remain a priority for both Afghan authorities and the international community. The combined legal and socio- economic consequences of Taliban policies demonstrate that the erosion of women’s rights in Afghanistan is not only a human rights concern but also a development and stability issue. Addressing these challenges requires sustained international engagement, legal accountability, and support for Afghan women. The protection of women’s rights remains essential for achieving peace, equality, and long-term development in Afghanistan.
Conclusion
The return of the Taliban in August 2021 has resulted in one of the most significant regressions in women’s rights in recent history. This article has demonstrated that the restrictions imposed on Afghan women,particularly those affecting education, employment, freedom of movement, and participation in public life,are inconsistent with Afghanistan’s obligations under international human rights law. These measures not only undermine gender equality but also threaten Afghanistan’s broader social, economic, and political development.
The analysis has shown that women’s rights in Afghanistan have historically fluctuated depending on political leadership and governance structures. While meaningful progress was achieved between 2001 and 2021, the reintroduction of restrictive policies has reversed many of these gains. The prohibition on girls’ education, the dismissal of women from employment, and the limitations on public participation have contributed to increased poverty, social isolation, and long-term developmental challenges. These restrictions also conflict with internationally recognised human rights standards, including those established under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
Furthermore, the article has argued that the erosion of women’s rights in Afghanistan extends beyond legal violations and has profound humanitarian and socio- economic consequences. Excluding women from education and employment weakens economic growth, undermines social stability, and limits Afghanistan’s long-term development. These outcomes highlight the urgent need for sustained international engagement and accountability.
Ultimately, the protection of women’s rights in Afghanistan remains essential for achieving peace, development, and justice. The international community, including the United Nations and human rights organisations, must continue to advocate for the restoration of women’s rights and support Afghan women through diplomatic, humanitarian, and legal initiatives. Ensuring equality and dignity for Afghan women is not only a legal obligation but also a necessary step toward building a stable and inclusive future for Afghanistan.
Bibliography
International Treaties
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (adopted 18 December 1979, entered into force 3 September 1981) 1249 UNTS 13
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 3 January 1976) 993 UNTS 3
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948 UNGA Res 217 A(III))
Journal Articles
Paiwandi P, ‘The Women’s Rights Situation in Afghanistan from August 2021 to Present’ (2025)
United Nations and International Organisation Reports
United Nations, Afghanistan: Women’s Rights Developments (2023)
United Nations Development Programme, Afghanistan Human Development Report (2020)
United Nations Development Programme, Afghanistan Socioeconomic Impact Assessment (2023)
UN Women, Afghanistan Gender Alert (2023)
World Health Organization, Afghanistan Health System Report (2023)
World Bank, Women, Business and the Law: Afghanistan (World Bank 2020)
NGO and Human Rights Reports
Amnesty International, Death in Slow Motion: Women and Girls Under Taliban Rule (2022)
Amnesty International, Afghanistan Women’s Rights Report (2023)
Human Rights Watch, Afghanistan: Taliban Ban on Women’s Education (2022)
Human Rights Watch, Afghanistan: Women’s Rights Under Taliban Rule (2023)
Human Rights Watch, Afghanistan: Women Under Taliban Rule (2001)
Additional Reports
United Nations Security Council, The Situation in Afghanistan (2021)
United Nations, Afghanistan Country Report on Women’s Rights (2020)
[1] Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948 UNGA Res 217 A(III)) arts 1–2.
[2] Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (adopted 18 December 1979, entered into force 3 September 1981) 1249 UNTS 13
[3] United Nations Development Programme, Afghanistan Human Development Report (2020).
[4] Human Rights Watch, Afghanistan: Taliban Restrictions on Women’s Rights (2022); Amnesty International, Death in Slow Motion: Women and Girls Under Taliban Rule (2022).
[5] United Nations Development Programme, Afghanistan Human Development Report (UNDP 2020).
[6] Palwasha Paiwandi, The Women’s Rights Situation in Afghanistan from August 2021 to Present (2025) 3–4.
[7] Human Rights Watch, Afghanistan: Women Under Taliban Rule (Human Rights Watch 2001).
[8] United Nations, Afghanistan Country Report on Women’s Rights (UN 2020).
[9] World Bank, Women, Business and the Law: Afghanistan Report (World Bank 2020).
[10] Palwasha Paiwandi (n 2) 5–7.
[11] Palwasha Paiwandi, The Women’s Rights Situation in Afghanistan from August 2021 to Present (2025) 6.
[12] United Nations, Afghanistan: Women’s Rights Developments (2023); Human Rights Watch, Afghanistan: Taliban Ban on Women’s Education (2022).
[13] Amnesty International, Death in Slow Motion: Women and Girls Under Taliban Rule (2022).
[14] Palwasha Paiwandi (n 1) 7.
[15] UN Women, Afghanistan Gender Alert (2023).
[16] World Health Organization, Afghanistan Health System Report (2023).
[17] Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948 UNGA Res 217 A(III)) arts 1, 2, 23 and 26.
[18] Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (adopted 18 December 1979, entered into force 3 September 1981) 1249 UNTS 13 arts 10–11.
[19] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171 arts 3 and 12.
[20] International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 3 January 1976) 993 UNTS 3 arts 6, 12 and 13.
[21] Human Rights Watch, Afghanistan: Women’s Rights Under Taliban Rule (2023); Amnesty International, Death in Slow Motion: Women and Girls Under Taliban Rule (2022).
[22] Palwasha Paiwandi, The Women’s Rights Situation in Afghanistan from August 2021 to Present (2025) 8–10.
[23] United Nations Development Programme, Afghanistan Socio- Economic Impact Assessment (2023).
[24] United Nations, Afghanistan Gender and Economic Report (2023).
[25] Human Rights Watch, Afghanistan: Women’s Rights Under Taliban Rule (2023)
