Ethiopia’s Role in Climate Justice

Introduction

Climate justice has emerged as one of the most critical themes within the broader discourse on international environmental law and human rights. The concept goes beyond mere mitigation and adaptation; it embodies equity, fairness, and responsibility in the distribution of burdens and benefits associated with climate change. As a developing country located in the Horn of Africa, Ethiopia occupies a unique and important position in the global struggle for climate justice.

I. Conceptualizing Climate Justice and International Legal Frameworks

Climate justice is both a normative and legal principle that emphasizes fairness in climate governance. It arises from recognition that those who have contributed least to greenhouse gas emissions often bear the greatest burden of climate impacts. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Kyoto Protocol, and the Paris Agreement all embed the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities” (CBDR-RC), which lies at the heart of climate justice^[1]

International law has also incorporated climate justice through human rights instruments. The UN Human Rights Council has recognized the right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment^[2]. Ethiopia’s constitutional provisions mirror this recognition. Moreover, African regional frameworks, including the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, reinforce the connection between human rights and environmental protection^[3].

Beyond international and regional recognition, climate justice also shapes national policies and community-level responses. In developing countries, where adaptive capacity is often limited, climate justice requires prioritizing resilience-building measures that protect marginalized populations from disproportionate harm. This includes ensuring equitable access to climate finance mechanisms such as the Green Climate Fund, which was established to support vulnerable nations in mitigation and adaptation efforts. However, disparities in access to these funds highlight ongoing justice concerns, as bureaucratic and structural barriers often prevent the most affected communities from receiving timely assistance. At the global level, climate justice has also emerged as a rallying point for social movements, civil society organizations, and youth-led initiatives. These actors have emphasized that climate change is not solely an environmental issue but one that intersects with economic inequality, racial justice, gender equity, and global development. By framing climate governance through the lens of justice, advocates push for transformative policies that go beyond carbon reduction targets to address deeper systemic inequalities.Furthermore, climate justice underscores the principle of intergenerational equity, recognizing that today’s policy choices will profoundly affect future generations. This forward-looking perspective demands sustainable governance approaches that balance immediate development needs with long-term planetary stewardship.

II. Ethiopia’s Domestic Legal and Policy Frameworks

Ethiopia’s Constitution explicitly integrates environmental rights. Article 44 guarantees all citizens the right to a clean and healthy environment, while Article 92 obliges the state to ensure sustainable development, environmental protection, and conservation of natural resources^[4].

In 1997, Ethiopia adopted its Environmental Policy, which set forth principles of sustainability, intergenerational equity, and participatory environmental governance. More recently, Ethiopia has advanced its Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) Strategy, unveiled in 2011, which seeks to achieve middle-income status by 2025 through low-carbon and climate-resilient development pathways^[5].

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Proclamation (No. 299/2002) requires assessment of potential environmental consequences before project implementation, reflecting precautionary principles^[6].  Proclamation No. 300/2002 on Pollution Control addresses regulatory aspects of environmental governance. These legal instruments align domestic law with international obligations under the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement. However, enforcement remains inconsistent, undermining Ethiopia’s full potential in climate governance^[7].

Ethiopia’s Constitution explicitly integrates environmental rights. Article 44 guarantees all citizens the right to a clean and healthy environment, while Article 92 obliges the state to ensure sustainable development, environmental protection, and conservation of natural resources. These constitutional provisions demonstrate a strong normative commitment to environmental stewardship, embedding environmental rights alongside civil, political, and socioeconomic rights. Importantly, the constitutional framing reflects Ethiopia’s recognition that sustainable development and environmental justice are inseparable from broader human rights obligations.

In 1997, Ethiopia adopted its Environmental Policy, which set forth principles of sustainability, intergenerational equity, and participatory environmental governance. This policy was pioneering at the time in Africa, as it explicitly acknowledged the connection between environmental management and poverty reduction. The policy emphasized the role of communities, particularly local and Indigenous populations, in managing natural resources, thereby aligning with global calls for participatory environmental governance. More recently, Ethiopia has advanced its Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) Strategy, unveiled in 2011, which seeks to achieve middle-income status by 2025 through low-carbon and climate-resilient development pathways. The CRGE represents an ambitious attempt to integrate economic transformation with climate action, targeting key sectors such as agriculture, forestry, transport, and energy. By investing in renewable energy, especially hydropower and wind, Ethiopia aims to reduce emissions while addressing pressing energy poverty. Legal frameworks further reinforce these policy ambitions. The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Proclamation (No. 299/2002) requires thorough assessment of potential environmental consequences before project implementation, reflecting the precautionary principle and ensuring that environmental considerations are mainstreamed into development planning. Similarly, Proclamation No. 300/2002 on Pollution Control addresses regulatory aspects of environmental governance by prohibiting the discharge of pollutants beyond permissible limits and by holding polluters accountable. Together, these instruments aim to create a regulatory system that prevents environmental degradation while encouraging responsible development. In addition, other proclamations,such as those on biodiversity conservation and forest management,complement these core frameworks by addressing specific sectors critical to climate resilience. Despite these advances, enforcement remains inconsistent, undermining Ethiopia’s full potential in climate governance. Limited institutional capacity, financial constraints, and competing development priorities often weaken the implementation of environmental laws. For example, EIAs are sometimes conducted in a perfunctory manner or sidelined in urgent development projects. Similarly, pollution control measures face challenges due to weak monitoring systems, limited technical expertise, and lack of robust sanction mechanisms. These gaps highlight the tension between Ethiopia’s rapid economic development goals and the need to safeguard ecological sustainability. Nevertheless, Ethiopia’s climate governance efforts illustrate an important case study in the Global South. By linking climate policy to national development aspirations, Ethiopia has positioned itself as a proactive actor in climate diplomacy. The CRGE strategy, in particular, has attracted international recognition and financial support from development partners, including the World Bank, the Green Climate Fund, and bilateral donors. Such partnerships have provided Ethiopia with resources to implement renewable energy projects, climate-smart agriculture, and ecosystem restoration programs. Moreover, the country’s reforestation initiatives, such as the “Green Legacy” campaign, which aims to plant billions of trees, reflect attempts to operationalize climate justice through ecosystem restoration and carbon sequestration.

At the regional level, Ethiopia’s environmental and climate commitments also reinforce Africa’s collective frameworks. As host of the African Union headquarters, Ethiopia plays a pivotal role in shaping continental climate agendas, including the African Climate Policy Framework and Agenda 2063. Its domestic initiatives thus resonate beyond national boundaries, contributing to Africa’s unified stance in global climate negotiations. Looking forward, Ethiopia faces the dual challenge of ensuring robust enforcement of its environmental laws while maintaining momentum on economic development. Strengthening institutional capacities, enhancing public participation, and promoting environmental education are critical steps in this direction. Furthermore, mainstreaming climate justice into all levels of governance,national, regional, and local,can help ensure that vulnerable communities benefit equitably from adaptation and mitigation measures. Ultimately, Ethiopia’s constitutional, legal, and policy frameworks provide a strong foundation for climate justice, but their transformative potential depends on effective and inclusive implementation.

III. Ethiopia in International and Regional Climate Diplomacy

Ethiopia has consistently played a leadership role in African climate diplomacy. As chair of the African Union’s Committee of African Heads of State and Government on Climate Change (CAHOSCC), Ethiopia has been instrumental in consolidating African positions in UNFCCC negotiations^[8]. Former Prime Minister Meles Zenawi spearheaded African climate advocacy during COP15 in Copenhagen, emphasizing climate finance and equity^[9].

At COP21 in Paris, Ethiopia pledged ambitious commitments through its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC). It committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 64% from business-as-usual levels by 2030, conditional on international support^[10].  Regionally, Ethiopia has advanced climate cooperation through the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD). Given its hydrological importance as the source of the Blue Nile, Ethiopia’s water and energy policies significantly impact regional climate adaptation strategies^[11].

IV. Comparative Perspective: Ethiopia and Other African States

Comparing Ethiopia’s climate justice initiatives with other African states highlights both its strengths and challenges. Kenya has similarly prioritized renewable energy, particularly geothermal development^[12].  South Africa, while being the continent’s most industrialized state, faces challenges in balancing coal dependence with climate commitments. Ethiopia’s relative advantage lies in its historically low emissions and renewable potential^[13].

In contrast, Rwanda and Morocco have developed strong enforcement mechanisms and renewable energy investments that Ethiopia could learn from. Morocco’s Noor Solar Complex exemplifies how climate justice principles can align with large-scale infrastructure projects^[14].  Ethiopia, while ambitious, requires stronger institutional implementation to match such examples^[15].

V. Challenges in Ethiopia’s Pursuit of Climate Justice

Despite progressive constitutional and policy frameworks, Ethiopia faces formidable challenges. Droughts, floods, and desertification disproportionately affect rural communities reliant on subsistence agriculture^[16].  These impacts exacerbate food insecurity, displacement, and poverty. Institutional capacity remains limited, with weak enforcement of environmental regulations and insufficient integration of climate considerations into all sectors^[17].  Moreover, political instability and conflict divert resources away from climate initiatives^[18].

Despite progressive constitutional and policy frameworks, Ethiopia faces formidable challenges in advancing effective climate governance. Droughts, floods, and desertification disproportionately affect rural communities reliant on subsistence agriculture. These impacts exacerbate food insecurity, displacement, and poverty, making climate change a profound development challenge as well as an environmental one. With over 80% of Ethiopia’s population dependent on rain-fed agriculture, shifts in rainfall patterns directly translate into declining crop yields, loss of livestock, and heightened vulnerability to famine. The cyclical recurrence of droughts, intensified by climate change, has undermined national resilience and perpetuated reliance on humanitarian assistance. Water scarcity and land degradation further compound the problem. Desertification, driven by overgrazing, deforestation, and unsustainable land-use practices, reduces arable land, pushing communities into marginal areas that are even more climate-sensitive. Flash floods and erratic rainfall not only damage crops but also erode soil fertility, diminishing long-term agricultural productivity. These environmental pressures contribute to internal displacement, straining already limited resources in host communities and heightening social tensions. Climate-induced migration is increasingly recognized as a security issue, as it intersects with conflict over natural resources and political instability. Institutional capacity to address these challenges remains limited. While Ethiopia has adopted robust legal instruments such as the Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation and the Climate Resilient Green Economy Strategy, their implementation is uneven. Many regulatory agencies lack technical expertise, financial resources, and monitoring systems to enforce compliance. For instance, industrial pollution continues to affect rivers and urban settlements, despite legal prohibitions. Similarly, climate considerations are insufficiently integrated into national planning in sectors such as transport, mining, and urban development. Weak coordination among ministries and overlapping mandates further hinder a coherent approach to climate governance.

Another major challenge is political instability and conflict, which divert resources away from environmental priorities. Ongoing internal conflicts, particularly in northern Ethiopia, have caused large-scale displacement, disrupted livelihoods, and reoriented government spending toward emergency responses and security concerns. In such contexts, long-term climate initiatives receive reduced political attention and diminished financial support. Moreover, conflict exacerbates environmental degradation, as displaced populations often rely on unsustainable exploitation of forests and water resources for survival. This cycle deepens vulnerability and undermines the gains made under frameworks like the CRGE. Access to climate finance is also constrained. Although Ethiopia has received international support, including funding from the Green Climate Fund and bilateral donors, the scale of resources mobilized falls far short of the country’s adaptation and mitigation needs. Bureaucratic hurdles, limited absorptive capacity, and competing development priorities hinder efficient utilization of funds. Rural communities,the most vulnerable to climate shocks,rarely benefit directly from these resources. As a result, disparities persist in who gains from climate finance, raising questions of equity within the broader framework of climate justice. Social dimensions add further complexity. Vulnerable groups such as women, children, pastoralists, and Indigenous communities bear a disproportionate share of climate burdens. Women, for example, shoulder the primary responsibility for securing water, fuelwood, and food, tasks made more difficult by environmental degradation. Despite this, their participation in decision-making on climate and environmental governance remains limited. Addressing gender inequality and ensuring inclusive participation are therefore critical to achieving effective climate justice in Ethiopia. At the same time, urbanization is creating new climate-related challenges. Rapid population growth in cities such as Addis Ababa has increased demand for energy, water, housing, and transport, often without adequate environmental planning. Urban air pollution, solid waste management, and vulnerability to flooding are pressing issues that remain under-addressed within the national climate agenda. This urban dimension requires greater policy attention to ensure that climate resilience strategies extend beyond rural areas. Looking ahead, Ethiopia’s path toward effective climate governance requires strengthening institutional capacity, enhancing multi-sectoral coordination, and deepening community participation. Greater investment in renewable energy, climate-smart agriculture, and water management can provide co-benefits for both mitigation and adaptation. Importantly, embedding equity into all climate initiatives,ensuring that the most vulnerable communities benefit from adaptation measures,will be key to transforming constitutional and policy commitments into tangible progress. Without these steps, the gap between Ethiopia’s ambitious frameworks and its practical realities will persist, leaving millions exposed to escalating climate risks.

VI. The Way Forward

For Ethiopia to strengthen its role in climate justice, several pathways are necessary. Domestically, enhancing the capacity and independence of environmental institutions is crucial. Greater judicial enforcement of constitutional environmental rights would empower communities and civil society. Expanding renewable energy investments, particularly in wind and solar, will reduce reliance on hydropower and ensure resilience against drought-related energy shortages^[19].

Regionally, Ethiopia should deepen cooperation through the African Union and IGAD, promoting joint adaptation strategies and transboundary resource governance^[20]. Internationally, Ethiopia must continue advocating for climate finance, technology transfer, and equitable burden-sharing, while also demonstrating transparency and ambition in its NDC implementation^[21].

Conclusion

Ethiopia’s role in climate justice reflects the paradox faced by many developing states: minimal historical contribution to climate change, yet disproportionate vulnerability to its impacts. Through constitutional guarantees, the CRGE, and active participation in international negotiations, Ethiopia has sought to align development with environmental stewardship^[22].  While challenges remain, Ethiopia’s trajectory demonstrates a deep commitment to fairness, equity, and shared responsibility in the fight against climate change^[23].

Bibliography

Treaties and International Instruments

African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (adopted 27 June 1981, entered into force 21 October 1986) OAU Doc CAB/LEG/67/3 rev 5, 21 ILM 58 (1982).

Human Rights Council Res 48/13, UN Doc A/HRC/RES/48/13 (8 October 2021).

UNFCCC (adopted 9 May 1992, entered into force 21 March 1994) 1771 UNTS 107.

Paris Agreement (adopted 12 December 2015, entered into force 4 November 2016).

Ethiopian Laws and Policies

Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Proclamation No 1/1995.

Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation, No 299/2002 (Ethiopia).

Pollution Control Proclamation, No 300/2002 (Ethiopia).

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Climate Resilient Green Economy Strategy (2011).

Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (Ethiopia), National Adaptation Plan (2019).

Ethiopia, Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (2015).

Reports and Policy Documents

African Union, Agenda 2063 and Climate Adaptation (2019).

African Union, Report of the Committee of African Heads of State and Government on Climate Change (CAHOSCC).

Environmental Protection Authority of Ethiopia, State of Environment Report (2015).

Ethiopian Electric Power, Renewable Energy Development in Ethiopia (2020).

Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), Regional Climate Strategy (2019).

International Crisis Group, Ethiopia’s Conflict and Climate Risks (2022).

IPCC, Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (AR6 WGII Report).

IPCC, Synthesis Report of the Sixth Assessment Report (2023).

Republic of Kenya, National Climate Change Action Plan 2018–2022.

Republic of South Africa, National Climate Change Response White Paper (2011).

World Bank, Climate Investment in Africa (2020).

Moroccan Agency for Sustainable Energy (MASEN), Noor Ouarzazate Solar Complex.

Speeches

Meles Zenawi, ‘Speech at COP15, Copenhagen’ (2009).

^[1] UNFCCC, opened for signature 9 May 1992, 1771 UNTS 107 (entered into force 21 March 1994)

^[2] Human Rights Council Res. 48/13, UN Doc. A/HRC/RES/48/13 (8 October 2021)

^[3] African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, adopted 27 June 1981, OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3 rev. 5, 21 ILM 58 (1982)

^[4] Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Proclamation No. 1/1995

^[5] Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, ‘Climate Resilient Green Economy Strategy’ (2011)

^[6] Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation, No. 299/2002 (Ethiopia)

^[7] Pollution Control Proclamation, No. 300/2002 (Ethiopia)

^[8] African Union, ‘Report of the Committee of African Heads of State and Government on Climate Change’ (CAHOSCC)

^[9] Speech by Meles Zenawi at COP15, Copenhagen (2009)

^[10] Ethiopia, ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contribution’ (2015)

^[11] Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), ‘Regional Climate Strategy’ (2019)

^[12] Republic of Kenya, ‘National Climate Change Action Plan 2018–2022’

^[13] Republic of South Africa, ‘National Climate Change Response White Paper’ (2011)

^[14] Moroccan Agency for Sustainable Energy (MASEN), ‘Noor Ouarzazate Solar Complex’

^[15] World Bank, ‘Climate Investment in Africa’ (2020)

^[16] IPCC, ‘Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability’ (AR6 WGII Report)

^[17] Environmental Protection Authority of Ethiopia, ‘State of Environment Report’ (2015)

^[18] International Crisis Group, ‘Ethiopia’s Conflict and Climate Risks’ (2022)

^[19] Ethiopian Electric Power, ‘Renewable Energy Development in Ethiopia’ (2020)

^[20] African Union, ‘Agenda 2063 and Climate Adaptation’ (2019)

^[21] UNFCCC, ‘Paris Agreement’ (2015)

^[22] Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (Ethiopia), ‘National Adaptation Plan’ (2019)

^[23] IPCC, ‘Synthesis Report of the Sixth Assessment’ (2023)