Virtual Rape in the Metaverse

Abstract 

The metaverse is a digital realm that comprises virtual and physical spaces that are immersive  and persistent using technologies like augmented reality, virtual reality, blockchain, and digital  avatars. Although it provides more connectivity and professional cooperation, and creative  freedom, it also creates significant ethical and legal challenges. Virtual rape, one of the most  important issues, is non-consensual sexual activity done on avatars in immersive digital spaces.  Although this is not physical contact, these acts have actual psychological damage because of  the digital embodiment, which is against sexual autonomy, dignity, and personal integrity. The  current law systems, which concentrate on physical harm, do not cope with defining crimes,  jurisdiction, evidence, and the responsibility of the platform in the digital space. Virtual rape  reveals the wide regulatory loopholes, as well as reflects gendered power differences in the  offline world. The present paper presents the case of the legal recognition of immersive digital  sexual violence, specialised crimes, enhanced responsibility of platforms, global collaboration,  and survivor-focused support mechanisms, both in legal and psychological aspects.  

Keywords 

Metaverse Law, Virtual Rape, Digital Sexual Violence, Sexual Autonomy and Consent,  Platform Liability, Cyber and Technology Law. 

Introduction 

The rapid development of digital technology has resulted in the metaverse, which is a virtual  world where individuals connect to each other, communicating via avatars, through such  technologies as virtual reality, augmented reality. Although the metaverse provides more  chances to communicate and be creative, and work, it also develops serious problems.  

Virtual rape is one of the problems because sexual activity is performed on the avatar of a  person without their permission. Although it is not physically touching, victims experience actual emotional and mental damage as they have a close attachment to their avatars. The  existing legislation primarily addresses physical injuries and lacks a clear explanation of such  Internet-based abuse. This complicates the task of punishing offenders and victimising.  

The situation is aggravated by such problems as the absence of clear legal definitions,  jurisdiction challenges, the absence of evidence, and the poor responsibility of platforms. This  paper emphasises the necessity to address the issue of virtual rape as actual sexual violence and  the need to develop improved legislation. 

Research methodology  

This study is a research based on a doctrinal and analytical approach. It relies on secondary  sources like books, journal articles, research papers, reports, and online resources related to the  metaverse, virtual reality, and digital sexual violence. The paper examines the current  legislation, legal rules and thought processes to get the idea of what constitutes virtual rape and  legal issues surrounding the case. An analytical method is employed to determine the  shortcomings of existing legal procedures and to imply the necessity of the legal status and  reformation. It is a legal and psychological limited study that lacks fieldwork and a survey. It  also supports systems to ensure the safety of individuals in online environments. 

What is Metaverse? 

1. Metaverse technology. 

The Metaverse is described as a “post-reality cosmos” that combines digital virtual worlds with  the real world. Through a networked web of immersive platforms, it establishes a “multiuser  environment that is continuous and enduring,” enabling human interaction. 

Main Elements 

To enable multimodal interactions with people and digital products, it mainly depends  on the integration of ‘Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR)’.1 

• Augmented Reality (AR) – With the use of cutting-edge technology, it is  possible to transport digital visual elements, noises, or other sensory stimulation directly to your smartphone or device, creating an improved representation of  the real physical environment.  
• Virtual Reality (VR) – A three-dimensional, computer-generated environment  that the user may explore and interact with. By moving objects around or  engaging with various parts through various actions, the person who makes it  becomes a part of the virtual world and immerses themselves in it as an ‘Avatar’. 

Economic Foundation 

Virtual goods and real estate can be owned thanks to technologies like blockchain,  cryptocurrencies, and NFTs (Non-Fungible Tokens).2 

The Seven-Layer Model 

Experience, Discovery, Creator Economy, Spatial Computing, Decentralisation,  Human Interface, and Infrastructure are the seven layers that Jon Radoff claims form  the foundation of the metaverse.3 

2. Purpose of the Metaverse 

The metaverse’s main goal is to “break down geographical barriers” to completely transform  how people connect, work, and live. Instead of only viewing people through a 2D screen, it  seeks to provide users with an “embodied and immersive experience” in which they feel  physically present with them.4 

Advantages –  

• Improved Connectivity: It encourages previously unheard-of levels of international  cooperation and creativity. 
• Professional Utility: Reading body language and paralanguage enables “digital twins”  of physical institutions and the employment of avatars in the workplace to enhance  distant communication.  
• Creative Freedom: It offers a “canvas for boundless creativity” where people can play,  interact with others, and construct without being constrained by the real world.5

3. Disadvantages of the Metaverse

The metaverse raises important ethical and legal dilemmas, which are beyond the capacity  of present laws to solve. There are no standards governing virtual assault, like in the  metaverse, where one person touches another without consent using haptic technology.  Hackers can hijack avatars to impersonate other people in the metaverse; this is because of  various technologies like eye-tracking systems that can invade one’s privacy.6 And misuse  any personal information they might come across.7 Minors face a high risk of being abused  because one cannot watch what they are doing in the metaverse.8 

The Immersive Digital Environment Virtual Rape  

Conceptualisation. 

1. Meaning and Concept of Virtual Rape.

Non-consent sexual intercourse in immersive digital environments involving the  use of avatars by persons is called virtual rape9. Even though no physical contact is  involved, users experience a personal violation since they greatly associate with  their avatars.10 It involves forceful touching, simulated penetration or sexual  domination, and harms psychologically.11 The greatest harm is to humility, self determination, and inner well-being and not the physical one. This demonstrates  that violence is not necessarily tied to physical interaction and raises the problem  of legal safeguarding of psychological integrity when dealing with digital space,  emphasising the necessity to protect against violence in digital space.12 

2. Digital Embodiment and Experience of Harm.

Embodiment is the reason why virtual rape leads to actual trauma.13 Immersive  technologies, such as motion tracking, spatial sound, and interactive feedback,  make the users feel that they are in their avatars.14 Due to this, the brain perceives  the damage done to the avatar as the damage done to the body. The victims become  fearful, panicked, helpless and dissociative and can lose psychological health in the  long run. The nervous system responds in a manner that shows danger even in the  absence of physical contact. Technology does not decrease harm; rather, it can  enhance and transform it into strong forms.15 

3. Sexual Autonomy, Non-Consensual Interaction.

Virtual rape is a direct detriment to sexual autonomy, i.e. individual right to consent,  boundaries, and sexuality. The avatars are not fictitious characters; they are the  extensions of the user. Sexual self-determination of the user is infringed upon when  force is applied to the avatar without the user’s consent. 16 The fact that someone  has entered a virtual space does not mean that consent may be implied. Such  platform features as forced proximity, avatars, or immobilisation are frequently  abused by offenders.17 This causes fear, powerlessness and imbalance as in offline  sexual violence.18 

4. Gendered Relations and Power.

Power and gender inequality determine virtual rape.19 This targets women and users  of gender diversity, just like in sexual violence in the real world.20 In the deep virtual  worlds, there are those abusers of power who use sexual aggression to dominate  others.21 Multiple avatars perpetrating group attacks heighten fear, shame, and  humiliation, which, in most cases, are accompanied by abusive and threatening  words.22 This demonstrates that VR rape is not a singular case of harm, but a broader  issue of inequality with digital technology that repeats itself and becomes  empowered through it. 23 

5. Technology Mediation and Survivor Experience of Sexual Violence.

Online sexual violence is known as immersive digital rape. The abuse is physical  and very real with the use of new technologies such as body tracking, touch  feedback, and realistic movements. This intensifies fear, anxiety and psychological  damage in the long-term.24 The trauma can be re-experienced as long as the victim  re-enters the virtual world or watches videos of the abuse. Although it is extremely  harmful, society tends to ignore it, pronouncing it not real, and thus, making the  pain worse. Virtual rape ought to be discussed as actual sexual violence since it  includes coercion, humiliation, domination, and trauma, as well as offline abuse.25 

Legal Challenges in Immersive Digital Environment. 

1. The First Case of Virtual Rape. 

Virtual rape is non-consensual sexual activity conducted in virtual environments  like virtual reality environments and metaverses.  

Early cases help us understand how virtual sexual violence began to be  recognised. The initial reported case of virtual gang rape in the UK happened in  2016 to a female gamer aged 16 years whose avatar was assaulted by a gang of  avatars belonging to male gamers in a virtual game environment. In this act, the  sexual actions and threats were coordinated to make the victim feel fear and a  lack of control and power in the situation. Although physical contact did not  occur in this act, psychological effects were felt by the victim. Moreover, at that  time, there was no specific criminal act in the UK laws related to sexual assault  in the virtual world. 26 This case showed the need for clear laws to protect people  in virtual spaces. 

2. Legal Nature of Virtual Rape. 

According to the traditional criminal law, rape entails physical contact and bodily  injury.27 The virtual rape disproves this concept since the damage occurs in the  digital bodies, but not by force.28 Immersive technologies cause the users to feel  physical, hence damage to the avatars seems like damage to the individual. It is  predominantly a psychological type of injury, though serious.29 According to many  legal experts, virtual rape should be considered as sexual violence in that such an  action infringes sexual autonomy, dignity and personal integrity. It cannot be  entirely classified as cybercrime or online harassment because of the actual and  profound negative impact on victims.30 

3. Existing Legal Challenges.

Lack of definition of the law is one of the greatest challenges. The vast majority of  criminal legislation fails to acknowledge avatars as part of the human body, and  therefore, it is hard to prosecute virtual rape as rape or sexual assault.31 Consequently, the offenders usually go scot-free or get minor punishments using  the general cyber harassment laws.  

Jurisdiction is another problem. Virtual environments work on an international  level, and criminal law is local. It becomes very complicated to define the law  applicable, the country in which the crime was committed and the authority with  jurisdiction.32 

Another problem is gathering evidence. Virtual rape incidents rely on digital proofs  like recordings, logs, or information about platforms. They are usually run by  individual businesses, and this has been an issue with access, privacy and data  preservation. 33 

Some barriers are created by social attitudes. Digital sexual violence is often  disbelieved as unreal or insignificant, and therefore underreported and not  supported by the institutions on behalf of the victims (Lopez, 2019).34 

4. Loopholes of Platform Accountability. 

In the majority of metaverses, accountability is not based on laws but on community  rules and censorship. Although safety functions are present, they are usually  reactive and inadequate.35 Virtual sexual violence is seldom perceived in realms as a serious rights violation and is instead placed on the users to consider; this is not  done to stop abuse but to design and govern that abuse.36 

5. Need for Legal Recognition.

It is necessary to appreciate that virtual rape is one of the continuums of sexual  violence. The form is digital, but the damage resembles offline sexual assault in the  areas of coercion, domination, humiliation, and trauma.37 The law should not be  tied to the physical aspect but consider psychological and dignity-based damages  of immersive technologies as a legal aspect, which is essential to be taken into  consideration in the legal system.38 

Recommendations and Suggestions.  

1. To begin with, sexual violence needs to be broadened in the law to encompass  non-consensual sex in immersive digital settings. Physical contact should not  be considered as the issue of violation of consent and autonomy, but of a  particular law (Napier 12). 39
2. Special crimes against the metaverse and VR-based sexual violence are to be  provided, with the appropriate punishment and explicit legal norms being  established on an equal basis. 40
3. There should be enhanced accountability on the platform. The law should  enforce preventive safety design, an effective reporting system and  collaboration with law enforcement with companies to prevent accidental injuries and fatalities, as well as overall fatalities (Nurse Practitioner Council of  Canada, 2019). 41 
4. It requires global collaboration to overcome these jurisdictional problems and  cross-nationality in law enforcement of online sex offences. 42
5. Survivor-centred methods are to be embraced, such as psychological assistance,  harm identification, and access to justice. The legal recognition alone is an  important step in legitimizing the experiences of survivors and minimizing  traumatic experiences, which minimizes trauma.43

Conclusion 

Virtual rape in the metaverse is a type of sexual violence. Even if there is no physical  touching involved in the act, the effects of the act are just as hurtful because the  victims are emotionally tied to their avatars.  

Existing laws cannot address this issue since laws only account for violations that  lead to physical harm. There is no regulation of the act in the laws since the laws  cannot define the act as sexual violence.  

The study indicates that the issue of rape in the metaverse should be addressed  through laws that address the issue of rape in the digital world, since the nature of  the act is in the digital world. Laws should address the sexual autonomy of the users  of the metaverse.  

Reference(S): 

1. What Is Metaverse Technology?: An In-Depth Guide To Its Potential, SIMPLILEARN  (July 31, 2025), <https://www.simplilearn.com/what-is-metaverse-technology-article.>  accessed December 20, 2025. 
2. Bernard Marr, What Is The Metaverse? Explaining The What, Why & When, FORBES  (Mar. 21, 2022), <https://share.google/Iz1iqS0k5qJizCGIS> accessed December 20,  2025. 
3. Jon Radoff, The Metaverse Value-Chain, BUILDING THE METAVERSE (Apr. 7,  2021), <https://medium.com/building-the-metaverse/the-metaverse-value-chain afcf9e09e3a7.> accessed December 21, 2025. 
4. What Is the Metaverse and Why Is It Important?, ACCENTURE,  <https://www.accenture.com/us-en/insights/metaverse> (last visited December 21,  2025). accessed December 21, 2025. 
5. Bernard Marr, 7 Important Problems & Disadvantages Of The Metaverse, BERNARD  MARR (Apr. 11, 2022), <https://bernardmarr.com/7-important-problems disadvantages-of-the-metaverse/.> accessed December 21, 2025. 
6. The Pros and Cons of Metaverse: A Comprehensive Guide, BULLPERKS (Apr. 28,  2023), <https://bullperks.com/the-pros-and-cons-of-metaverse-a-comprehensive guide/.> accessed December 21, 2025. 
7. Clare McGlynn, Carlotta Rigotti, From Virtual Rape to Meta-rape: Sexual Violence,  Criminal Law and the Metaverse, Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, Volume 45, Issue 3,  Autumn 2025, Pages 554–582, <https://doi.org/10.1093/ojls/gqaf009> accessed  December 23, 2025. 
8. Bellini, Olivia (2024) “Virtual Justice: Criminalising Avatar Sexual Assault in  Metaverse Spaces,” Mitchell Hamline Law Review: Vol. 50: Iss. 1, Article 3. Available  at: <https://open.mitchellhamline.edu/mhlr/vol50/iss1/3> accessed December 23,  2025. 
9. C. Hesselbein & P. Bory, Metaverse Bodies, in Infrastructures of Reality: Metaverse  Stories, Spaces, Bodies 75–105 (SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology  ed., Springer Cham 2025) (chapter available at <https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031- 97167-9_4).> accessed December 23, 2025. 
10. McGlynn, Clare M. S. and Rigotti, Carlotta, Meta-Rape: Sexual Violence, Criminal  Law and the Metaverse (August 22, 2025). Available at SSRN: <https://ssrn.com/abstract=5401867 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5401867 > accessed December 23, 2025. 
11. Giulia Melis & Merylin Monaro, Sexual Crimes in Metaverse: New Frontiers in  Forensic Psychology and Legal Challenges, 5 J. of Metaverse 124 (2025),  <https://doi.org/10.57019/jmv.1658955.> accessed December 23, 2025. 
12. Legal Construction of Criminal Prosecution Against Perpetrators of Rape in the  Metaverse: Konstruksi Hukum Pemidanaan Terhadap Pelaku Pemerkosaan di  Metaverse. (2024). Peradaban Hukum Nusantara, 1(1), 60-74.  <https://doi.org/10.62193/3aga8d22> accessed December 23, 2025. 
13. Haber, Eldar, The Criminal Metaverse (March 26, 2023). 99 Indiana. L.J. 843 (2024),  Available at SSRN: <https://ssrn.com/abstract=4400281> accessed December 23,  2025. 
14. Carlotta Rigotti & Gianclaudio Malgieri, Sexual Violence and Harassment in the  Metaverse: A New Manifestation of Gender-Based Harms (Alliance for Universal  Digital Rights et al., Apr. 26, 2024), <https://audri.org/wp content/uploads/2024/04/EN-AUDRi-Sexual-violence-and-harassment-in-the metaverse-03.pdf> accessed December 23, 2025. 
15. Mohamed Chawki, Subhajit Basu & Kyung-Shick Choi, Redefining Boundaries in the  Metaverse: Navigating the Challenges of Virtual Harm and User Safety, 13 Laws 33  (2024), <https://doi.org/10.3390/laws13030033> accessed December 23, 2025. 
16. Hua Xuan Qin, Yuyang Wang & Pan Hui, Identity, Crimes, and Law Enforcement in  the Metaverse, 12 Hum. & Soc. Sci. Comm. 194 (2025),  <https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-04266-w.> accessed December 24, 2025. 
17. M. A. Efremova & E. A. Russkevich, Criminal-Legal Issues of Countering Crime in the  Metaverse: Current State and Prospects of Development, 3 J. of Digital Technologies  and Law 187 (2025), <https://doi.org/10.21202/jdtl.2025.8.> accessed December 24,  2025. 
18. Hatice Kübra Ecemiş Yılmaz, Legal Issues of the Metaverse: A Public International  Law Perspective, 15 Law & Justice Rev. 49 (Jan. 2024),  <https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/3660505> accessed December 24,  2025. 
19. Kyung-Shick Choi, Whitney Sanders & Claire Seungeun Lee, The Present and Future  of Child Sexual Abuse on the Metaverse: Recommendations for an Innovative  Approach to Law Enforcement Responses, 16 J. Aggression, Conflict & Peace Research 316 (2024), <https://doi.org/10.1108/jacpr-03-2024-0889.> accessed  December 24, 2025. 
20. Nidhi Tyagi, Radhey Shyam Jha & Srinivasan Sekaran, Edit-Gurukula Patrika: Anka  75-3 January-March 2024 203–211 (2024), available at  <https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Radhey-Jha-3/publication/388868999_Edit gurukula-patrika-anka-75-3-janavari-marca-2024_compressed-203- 211/links/67ab0d02207c0c20fa83915e/Edit-gurukula-patrika-anka-75-3-janavari marca-2024-compressed-203-211.pdf.> accessed December 24, 2025.

1 What Is Metaverse Technology?: An In-Depth Guide To Its Potential, SIMPLILEARN (July 31, 2025),  https://www.simplilearn.com/what-is-metaverse-technology-article.

2 Bernard Marr, What Is The Metaverse? Explaining The What, Why & When, FORBES (Mar. 21, 2022),  https://share.google/Iz1iqS0k5qJizCGIS 

3Jon Radoff, The Metaverse Value-Chain, BUILDING THE METAVERSE (Apr. 7, 2021),  https://medium.com/building-the-metaverse/the-metaverse-value-chain-afcf9e09e3a7. 4 Rep  

5 What Is the Metaverse and Why Is It Important?, ACCENTURE, https://www.accenture.com/us en/insights/metaverse (last visited December 21, 2025).

6 Bernard Marr, 7 Important Problems & Disadvantages Of The Metaverse, BERNARD MARR (Apr. 11, 2022),  https://bernardmarr.com/7-important-problems-disadvantages-of-the-metaverse/. 

7 The Pros and Cons of Metaverse: A Comprehensive Guide, BULLPERKS (Apr. 28, 2023),  https://bullperks.com/the-pros-and-cons-of-metaverse-a-comprehensive-guide/. 

8 Rep. 

9 Clare McGlynn, Carlotta Rigotti, From Virtual Rape to Meta-rape: Sexual Violence, Criminal Law and the  Metaverse, Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, Volume 45, Issue 3, Autumn 2025, Pages 554– 582, https://doi.org/10.1093/ojls/gqaf009 

10 Bellini, Olivia (2024) “Virtual Justice: Criminalising Avatar Sexual Assault in Metaverse Spaces,” Mitchell  Hamline Law Review: Vol. 50: Iss. 1, Article 3. Available at: https://open.mitchellhamline.edu/mhlr/vol50/iss1/3

11 C. Hesselbein & P. Bory, Metaverse Bodies, in Infrastructures of Reality: Metaverse Stories, Spaces, Bodies  75–105 (SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology ed., Springer Cham 2025) (chapter available at  https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-97167-9_4).  

12 McGlynn, Clare M. S. and Rigotti, Carlotta, Meta-Rape: Sexual Violence, Criminal Law and the Metaverse  (August 22, 2025). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5401867 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5401867

13 Giulia Melis & Merylin Monaro, Sexual Crimes in Metaverse: New Frontiers in Forensic Psychology and  Legal Challenges, 5 J. of Metaverse 124 (2025), https://doi.org/10.57019/jmv.1658955. 

14 Legal Construction of Criminal Prosecution Against Perpetrators of Rape in the Metaverse: Konstruksi  Hukum Pemidanaan Terhadap Pelaku Pemerkosaan di Metaverse. (2024). Peradaban Hukum Nusantara, 1(1),  60-74. https://doi.org/10.62193/3aga8d22 

15 Haber, Eldar, The Criminal Metaverse (March 26, 2023). 99 Indiana. L.J. 843 (2024), Available at SSRN:  https://ssrn.com/abstract=4400281 

16 McGlynn, Clare M. S. and Rigotti, Carlotta, Meta-Rape: Sexual Violence, Criminal Law and the Metaverse  (August 22, 2025). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5401867 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5401867 

17 Giulia Melis & Merylin Monaro, Sexual Crimes in Metaverse: New Frontiers in Forensic Psychology and  Legal Challenges, 5 J. of Metaverse 124 (2025), https://doi.org/10.57019/jmv.1658955.

18 Rep.

19 Clare McGlynn, Carlotta Rigotti, From Virtual Rape to Meta-rape: Sexual Violence, Criminal Law and the  Metaverse, Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, Volume 45, Issue 3, Autumn 2025, Pages 554– 582, https://doi.org/10.1093/ojls/gqaf009 

20 Rep. 

21 Carlotta Rigotti & Gianclaudio Malgieri, Sexual Violence and Harassment in the Metaverse: A New  Manifestation of Gender-Based Harms (Alliance for Universal Digital Rights et al., Apr. 26, 2024),  https://audri.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/EN-AUDRi-Sexual-violence-and-harassment-in-the-metaverse 03.pdf 

22 Haber, Eldar, The Criminal Metaverse (March 26, 2023). 99 Indiana. L.J. 843 (2024), Available at SSRN:  https://ssrn.com/abstract=4400281 

23 Mohamed Chawki, Subhajit Basu & Kyung-Shick Choi, Redefining Boundaries in the Metaverse: Navigating  the Challenges of Virtual Harm and User Safety, 13 Laws 33 (2024), https://doi.org/10.3390/laws13030033

24 Carlotta Rigotti & Gianclaudio Malgieri, Sexual Violence and Harassment in the Metaverse: A New  Manifestation of Gender-Based Harms (Alliance for Universal Digital Rights et al., Apr. 26, 2024),  https://audri.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/EN-AUDRi-Sexual-violence-and-harassment-in-the-metaverse 03.pdf. 

25 McGlynn, Clare M. S. and Rigotti, Carlotta, Meta-Rape: Sexual Violence, Criminal Law and the Metaverse  (August 22, 2025). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5401867 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5401867

26 Clare McGlynn, Carlotta Rigotti, From Virtual Rape to Meta-rape: Sexual Violence, Criminal Law and the  Metaverse, Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, Volume 45, Issue 3, Autumn 2025, Pages 554– 582, https://doi.org/10.1093/ojls/gqaf009 

27 Mohamed Chawki, Subhajit Basu, & Kyung-Shick Choi, Redefining Boundaries in the Metaverse: Navigating  the Challenges of Virtual Harm and User Safety, 13 Laws 33 (2024), https://doi.org/10.3390/laws13030033. 

28 Hua Xuan Qin, Yuyang Wang & Pan Hui, Identity, Crimes, and Law Enforcement in the Metaverse, 12 Hum.  & Soc. Sci. Comm. 194 (2025), https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-04266-w.  

29 M. A. Efremova & E. A. Russkevich, Criminal-Legal Issues of Countering Crime in the Metaverse: Current  State and Prospects of Development, 3 J. of Digital Technologies and Law 187 (2025),  https://doi.org/10.21202/jdtl.2025.8.  

30 Giulia Melis & Merylin Monaro, Sexual Crimes in Metaverse: New Frontiers in Forensic Psychology and  Legal Challenges, 5 J. Metaverse 124 (2025), https://doi.org/10.57019/jmv.1658955. 

31 Hatice Kübra Ecemiş Yılmaz, Legal Issues of the Metaverse: A Public International Law Perspective, 15 Law  & Justice Rev. 49 (Jan. 2024), https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/3660505

32 Kyung-Shick Choi, Whitney Sanders & Claire Seungeun Lee, The Present and Future of Child Sexual Abuse  on the Metaverse: Recommendations for an Innovative Approach to Law Enforcement Responses, 16 J.  Aggression, Conflict & Peace Research 316 (2024), https://doi.org/10.1108/jacpr-03-2024-0889. 

33 Haber, Eldar, The Criminal Metaverse (March 26, 2023). 99 Indiana. L.J. 843 (2024), Available at  SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4400281 

34 Nidhi Tyagi, Radhey Shyam Jha & Srinivasan Sekaran, Edit-Gurukula Patrika: Anka 75-3 January-March  2024 203–211 (2024), available at https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Radhey-Jha 

3/publication/388868999_Edit-gurukula-patrika-anka-75-3-janavari-marca-2024_compressed-203- 211/links/67ab0d02207c0c20fa83915e/Edit-gurukula-patrika-anka-75-3-janavari-marca-2024-compressed-203- 211.pdf. 

35 Giulia Melis & Merylin Monaro, Sexual Crimes in Metaverse: New Frontiers in Forensic Psychology and  Legal Challenges, 5 J. Metaverse 124 (2025), https://doi.org/10.57019/jmv.1658955. 

36 Carlotta Rigotti & Gianclaudio Malgieri, Sexual Violence and Harassment in the Metaverse: A New  Manifestation of Gender-Based Harms (Alliance for Universal Digital Rights et al., Apr. 26, 2024),  https://audri.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/EN-AUDRi-Sexual-violence-and-harassment-in-the-metaverse 03.pdf. 

37 Hua Xuan Qin, Yuyang Wang & Pan Hui, Identity, Crimes, and Law Enforcement in the Metaverse, 12  Humanities & Soc. Sci. Comm. 194 (2025), https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-04266-w. 

38 Clare McGlynn, Carlotta Rigotti, From Virtual Rape to Meta-rape: Sexual Violence, Criminal Law and the  Metaverse, Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, Volume 45, Issue 3, Autumn 2025, Pages 554– 582, https://doi.org/10.1093/ojls/gqaf009 

39 Mohamed Chawki, Subhajit Basu, & Kyung-Shick Choi, Redefining Boundaries in the Metaverse: Navigating  the Challenges of Virtual Harm and User Safety, 13 Laws 33 (2024), https://doi.org/10.3390/laws13030033. 

40 M. A. Efremova & E. A. Russkevich, Criminal-Legal Issues of Countering Crime in the Metaverse: Current  State and Prospects of Development, 3 J. of Digital Technologies and Law 187 (2025),  https://doi.org/10.21202/jdtl.2025.8.

41 Carlotta Rigotti & Gianclaudio Malgieri, Sexual Violence and Harassment in the Metaverse: A New  Manifestation of Gender-Based Harms (Alliance for Universal Digital Rights et al., Apr. 26, 2024),  https://audri.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/EN-AUDRi-Sexual-violence-and-harassment-in-the-metaverse 03.pdf. 

42 Eldar Haber, The Criminal Metaverse, 99 Ind. L.J. 843 (2024), https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID4400281_code118/signature.htm?abstractid=4400281. 

43Giulia Melis & Merylin Monaro, Sexual Crimes in Metaverse: New Frontiers in Forensic Psychology and  Legal Challenges, 5 J. Metaverse 124 (2025), https://doi.org/10.57019/jmv.1658955.