THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE HEALTH ANDWELL-BEING OF UNDERDEVELOPED COMMUNITIES IN SOUTH AFRICA.

Abstract 

This study focuses on the impact of climate change in underdeveloped communities  in South Africa, explaining how deteriorating weather patterns exacerbate existing social problems. It examines evidence-based science on increasing temperatures,  droughts, and extreme weather events, their impacts on food security, infrastructure,  and public health. The author then reviews South Africa’s legislative obligations to  environmental and health rights, noting the unique and critical importance of local  government in managing risks and creating resilient, healthy places for its citizens.  The study concludes that addressing climate change is a necessary step in improving health inequalities and achieving sustainable development among South Africa’s most  vulnerable communities. 

Introduction 

Climate change is no longer a distant environmental concern; it is a lived escalating  crisis that intersects with public health, human rights, and socio-economic inequality. In South Africa, the impacts of climate change are disproportionately borne by  underdeveloped and marginalised communities, where poverty, inadequate  infrastructure, and limited access to essential services amplify vulnerability. Rising temperatures, erratic rainfall, and extreme weather events are reshaping daily life,  threatening livelihoods, and undermining the constitutional promise of dignity, equality,  and a healthy environment. 

This article expands on the multidimensional effects of climate change on health and  well-being in South Africa’s underdeveloped communities. It situates these impacts  within a legal and governance framework, drawing on constitutional rights, statutory  obligations, and emerging jurisprudence. It also highlights the critical role of local  government, civil society, youth movements, and the media in shaping climate-resilient futures. Ultimately, the article argues that climate change is a multiplier of inequality  and that addressing it requires a rights-based, participatory, and justice-centred  approach. 

Climate Change as a Driver of Inequality 

South Africa’s socio-economic landscape is characterised by deep structural inequality  rooted in apartheid spatial planning, uneven development, and persistent poverty.  Climate change intensifies these inequalities by placing the greatest burdens on those  least equipped to adapt. 

1. Heatwaves and Thermal Stress 

Underdeveloped communities often lack adequate housing, insulation, or access  to cooling systems. Heatwaves increase the risk of: 

1. Heatstroke and dehydration. 
2. Cardiovascular and respiratory complications. 

iii. Increased mortality among the elderly, infants, and people with chronic  illnesses.

Informal settlements, with their dense structures and corrugated iron roofs, become heat traps. For residents who work outdoors, such as street vendors, construction  workers, and small-scale farmers, heat exposure becomes a daily occupational  hazard. 

2. Floods and Storm Surges. 

Flooding events in KwaZulu-Natal, the Eastern Cape, and Limpopo have  repeatedly demonstrated how climate change intersects with poor infrastructure: 

1. Informal homes collapse or are washed away. 
2. Roads, bridges, and clinics become inaccessible. 

iii. Water contamination leads to outbreaks of diarrhoeal diseases. iv. Families lose documents, school materials, and livelihoods. 

These events deepen cycles of poverty, forcing households to rebuild repeatedly with limited resources. 

3. Droughts and Water Scarcity. 

Droughts undermine food security and access to clean water. In rural communities,  where subsistence farming is common, droughts lead to: 

1. Crop failures. 
2. Livestock deaths. 

iii. Reduced household income. 

1. Increased food prices. 

Women and children often walk longer distances to fetch water, exposing them to  physical strain and safety risks. 

Climate change, therefore, acts as a structural force that widens inequality,  disproportionately affecting those already marginalised by geography, gender, and  socio-economic status.

Health Impacts of Climate Change 

Climate change affects health directly through environmental exposure and  indirectly through weakened systems and social disruption1. 

1. Disease Burden 

Warmer temperatures expand the range of vector-borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, and Rift Valley fever. Stagnant water after floods increases mosquito  breeding sites. Poor sanitation infrastructure in informal settlements heightens the  risk of: 

1. Cholera. 
2. Typhoid. 

iii. Gastrointestinal infections. 

These diseases strain already fragile healthcare systems. 

2. Mental Health Impacts 

Climate-related trauma is an emerging but under-acknowledged public health crisis. Communities experience: 

1. Anxiety and chronic stress due to repeated disasters. 
2. Depression linked to loss of homes, livelihoods, and security. iii. Trauma among children exposed to displacement and instability. 

Mental health services remain scarce in rural and informal areas, leaving  psychological wounds untreated. 

3. Nutrition and Food Security 

Climate-induced food insecurity leads to: 

1. Malnutrition. 
2. Stunting in children. 

iii. Weakened immune systems. 

1. Increased susceptibility to disease. 

Women and children are disproportionately affected due to gendered food  distribution norms and biological vulnerability during pregnancy and breastfeeding. 

4. Strain on Healthcare Systems 

Public healthcare facilities in underdeveloped areas often lack: 

1. Adequate staffing. 
2. Climate-resilient infrastructure. 

iii. Emergency response capacity. 

Extreme weather events disrupt supply chains, damage clinics, and overwhelm  emergency services. This undermines the constitutional right to access healthcare  services. 

Community Vulnerability and Lived Realities 

Climate change is experienced most acutely at the community level. Rural and peri urban communities report increasingly precarious livelihoods, with farmers noting  declining yields, reduced grazing land, and unpredictable seasons. These changes  threaten cultural practices, food systems, and intergenerational knowledge2. 

Informal Settlements, movements such as Abahlali baseMjondolo, have documented  how floods repeatedly destroy informal homes in Durban. Residents face: 

1. Displacement. 
2. Loss of possessions. 

iii. Increased exposure to disease. 

3. Disrupted schooling3. 

Studies have shown that rapid and unplanned urbanisation, in combination with the  impacts of climate change such as flooding, increases the vulnerability of the urban  poor to natural hazards. Flooding in the city of Durban and surrounding areas, and in  other poor communities across the country, has caused loss of life, injury or other  health impacts, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental  degradation4. 

Women and youth are disproportionately affected, facing food insecurity, disrupted  education, and heightened risks of gender-based violence during climate-induced  migration5.  

Amongst the vulnerable populations, women are severely impacted by climate change  and variations. Rural women who rely on agriculture are most affected6. Women in the  rural areas see agriculture as their only way out of poverty. In Bangladesh, climate  change has caused devastating effects and income inequalities, and women are 

victims of this inequality. The vulnerability faced by Women in Bangladesh is  exacerbated by gender inequality, which leads to food insecurities because of climate  –induced disasters78. 

Water shortages and climate change disasters increase the risks of malnutrition  amongst women and children during pregnancy or breastfeeding910. 

In Bangladesh, the unequal socio-economic conditions are similar to South Africa’s  unequal conditions, which condemn women to poverty, limited access to and control  over natural resources, and are regarded as second-class citizens compared to men  within their families and within society, which is a sign of discrimination11. 

Climate change threatens the futures of young people through disrupted education,  reduced employment opportunities, and increased migration pressures. 

Youth-led organisations in South Africa have responded with advocacy, legal literacy  campaigns, and community education, but structural barriers persist. 

Tourism, agriculture, and fisheries, key economic sectors, are increasingly affected by  extreme weather. Reduced tourism in national parks, declining crop yields, and  damaged infrastructure undermine local economies and national development goals. 

These lived experiences underscore that climate change is not a distant scientific  abstraction, but a daily struggle for survival in the Global South. 

According to a scientific synthesis from the University of Cape Town, “extreme weather  threatens the plants and animals that attract tourism as well, and directly damages  infrastructure at nature reserves, adventure destinations and parks. Temperature rise  by 2050 is projected to decrease visitors to South Africa’s national parks by 4%, with  the Kruger National Park most affected12.” 

The scientific synthesis reveals that Climate Change not only impacts the health and  well-being of individuals but also affects a country’s economic growth and stability. 

Legal and Constitutional Dimensions: Case Law 

South Africa’s legal framework provides robust protections for environmental and  health rights. However, implementation gaps and governance failures undermine their  realisation. 

1. Constitutional Rights  

Section 24 of the Constitution13 guarantees: 

1. The right to an environment not harmful to health or well-being. ii. The right to have the environment protected through reasonable legislative  and other measures. 

Climate change threatens both dimensions of this right. 

Section 2714 further guarantees the right to access healthcare, food, water, and social  security, rights directly undermined by climate impacts. 

2. Statutory Framework 

Key legislation includes: 

15. National Environmental Management Act (NEMA)15. 
16. Climate Change Act16. 

iii. Disaster Management Act17. 

18. Municipal Systems Act18. 

These laws impose duties on the state to prevent environmental harm, promote  sustainable development, and protect vulnerable communities. 

3. Case Law and Climate Litigation 

In Earthlife Africa Johannesburg v Minister of Environmental Affairs (2017), the High Court ruled that climate change considerations must be integrated into  environmental impact assessments for new coal-fired power stations, setting a  precedent for climate accountability19. 

Director Duties and Liability for Climate Risk (2024 Memorandum), legal scholars and practitioners have emphasised that corporate directors may be held  liable for failing to address climate risks, reinforcing the duty of care under South  African law20. 

iii. Globally significant rulings, such as the TotalEnergies greenwashing case  (2025), demonstrate how African jurisdictions are beginning to hold  corporations accountable for misleading climate claims21. 

These developments illustrate how the law can serve as a powerful tool to bridge the  gap between constitutional rights and lived realities, ensuring that environmental  justice is not merely aspirational but enforceable. 

Governance, Local Government, and Institutional Capacity 

Local government is the frontline of climate adaptation. Municipalities are responsible  for: 

1. Water and sanitation. 
2. Waste management. 

iii. Human settlements. 

1. Disaster response. 
2. Local economic development. 

However, many municipalities face: 

1. Budget constraints. 
2. Skills shortages. 

iii. Corruption. 

1. Poor planning capacity. 

This undermines climate resilience and exposes communities to preventable harm. Strengthening local government requires: 

1. Dedicated climate adaptation funding. 
2. Training in environmental law and climate science. 

iii. Transparent governance. 

1. Community-centred planning. 

The Necessity of Active Engagement: Media, Government, and  Communities  

A holistic response to climate change demands active collaboration between media,  government, and communities:  

1. Media should serve as a watchdog and amplifier, raising awareness of  climate impacts, disseminating scientific knowledge, and ensuring that the  struggles of underdeveloped communities remain visible in public  discourse. When it comes to climate change, the media has fallen short in  highlighting the importance of climate adaptation, mitigation, and  prevention. 

According to a study conducted by Dr Enoch Sithole22, it is stated that,  “although media coverage of climate change appears to be improving,  concerns about its inadequacy continue to be voiced. South African climate  journalist, Leonie Joubert, recently criticised the media, saying it has failed society: ‘We haven’t warned society of the gravest existential threat in our  200, 000 years as modern humans. We have largely turned a blind eye to  the powerful polluters who have shaped our policies and our economies to  profit from the free use of our atmospheric space, a shared, global  commons, while leaving the rest of us, and the environment, to pick up the  bill.’” 

According to the same study, an investigation was conducted into the media  coverage of the April 2022 floods in Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, which were reported to have been exacerbated by climate change. It was found that two  of South Africa’s largest online news websites did not sufficiently report on  the link between the floods and climate change. News24 and the  Independent Online extensively reported on the floods between April and  August 2022. With 245 and 269 published articles, respectively. However,  only 23 stories about the floods mentioned climate change as the cause. It  was mentioned that such a failure robs the affected communities of the  opportunity to understand the causes of their predicament. It makes it  difficult for communities to prepare for future disasters through mitigation  and adaptation. 

Government must move beyond policy rhetoric to practical implementation,  transparent communication, participatory governance, and responsiveness  to community needs, which are essential for building trust and resilience. 

According to Nonhlanhla Ngcobo, “the Constitution of the Republic of South  Africa has captured the global concern of an ecologically deteriorating  environment in a constitutional environmental right found in section 24 of  the Constitution, she cites Du Plessis and Kotze, who state that concretising  the right in the Constitution creates an obligation for the state to protect the  right and ensure that its organs comply with its standards. Concretisation  enables judicial intervention where the right is under threat23.” 

She states that, “section 7(2) and 8(1) of the constitution, when read with  section 24 of the constitution, compel local authorities, together with other  spheres of government, to respect, protect, promote and fulfil the right of  people to an environment that is not harmful to their health and well-being. 

The right applies both horizontally and vertically, thus imposing a duty on  other people, political parties and local authorities, among others, to refrain  from activities that are likely to infringe on the right of people to enjoy this  right.” 

iii. Communities provide lived experiences and local knowledge, ensuring that  solutions are culturally relevant and sustainable. Their engagement is  critical in shaping policies that reflect real-world challenges. Community  involvement should be from the beginning and not a last resort. Public  participation should be prioritised as climate change affects communities,  especially the most vulnerable. 

According to a paper by Gina Ziervogel, Johan Enqvist, Luke Metelerkamp,  and John van Breda, the paper argues that if more attention is paid to  capacity building in the knowledge creation phase, the implementation of  climate adaptation policies will have a greater chance of success. The paper  states that it is particularly important for transformative adaptation, where a  careful reading of the current context, including its vulnerabilities,  institutional arrangements, key actors and their preferences, and  governance, needs to be well understood in order to address climate risk  and issues of inequality and historic injustice. According to the paper, the  above-mentioned will bring an understanding that is promoted by the valuing  of different types of knowledge, particularly experiential knowledge of the  lived reality of residents, which helps inform transformative adaptation  strategies and strengthen resilience24. 

The synergy between these actors should be a priority. Communities should be given  a proper opportunity to articulate their realities, and the media needs to provide  impartial evidence-based information to the public about the effects of climate change  on the health and well-being of the underdeveloped communities. Such information  should not only be available to those members of the community who are literate and  can read reports from civil society organisations and human rights defenders. The  government should respond with informed, accountable action, and this can be done  if those in the Department of Environmental Affairs are educated on the subject of  environmental law and the impacts of climate change. 

Call to Action 

Addressing climate change in underdeveloped communities is not optional; it is  essential for achieving sustainable development and reducing health inequities. Key  strategies include: 

1. Empowering local governments with resources and legal clarity. ii. Supporting youth-led advocacy and education. 

iii. Bridging the gap between law and justice through strategic litigation and  policy reform. 

1. Investing in community-driven resilience strategies. 
2. Strengthening media partnerships to ensure climate justice remains central  to national discourse. 

Conclusion 

Climate change is a multiplier of inequality in South Africa. It exposes governance weaknesses, deepens health disparities, and threatens the well-being of millions. Yet,  it also presents an opportunity to reimagine governance, strengthen community  

Climate Policy.’ (2022) 22:5, 607-622, DOI:10.1080/14693062.2020.1863180  https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2020.1863180 accessed 21 January 2026.

resilience, and uphold the constitutional promise of a healthy environment. By centring justice, health, sustainability, and active collaboration between media, government,  and communities, and by grounding responses in both case law and lived realities, South Africa can chart a path toward a more equitable and resilient future. 

Bibliography 

Primary sources 

Cases: 

Earthlife Africa Johannesburg v Minister of Environmental Affairs and Others  (65662/16) [2017] ZAGPPHC 58; [2017] 2 All SA 519 (GP) (8 March 2017) 

N° RG 22/02955 N° Portalis 352J-W-B7G-CWJK L 

Statutes: 

The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. 

National Environmental Management Act, 107 of 1998. 

Climate Change Act, 22 of 2024. 

Disaster Management Act, 57 of 2002.

Municipal Systems Act, 32 of 2000. 

Reports: 

Johnston, P., Egbebiyi, T.S., Zvobgo, L., Omar, S.A., Cartwright, A. and Hewitson, B.,  ‘Climate change impacts in South Africa: What climate change means for a country  and its people. University of Cape Town: Cape Town, South Africa.’ (2024) 

Centre for Environmental Rights, Legal Memorandum: Director Duties and Liability for  Climate Risk Under SA Law (Sep. 2024) 

Articles: 

Manga, A., Dartchiev, D., and Variava, E. ‘Healthcare and climate change: a South  African health professionals’ perspective.’ (2022) 4 (3), 173-177. 

Williams, D. S., Máñez Costa, M., Sutherland, C., Celliers, L., & Scheffran, J.  ‘Vulnerability of informal settlements in the context of rapid urbanisation and climate  change. Environment & Urbanisation.’ (2019) 31(1), 157-176. 

Brown, D., Chanakira, R., Chatiza, K., Dhliwayo, M., Dodman, M., Masiiwa, D.,  Muchadenyika, D., Mugabe, P. and Zvigadza, S. ‘Climate Change Impacts,  Vulnerability and Adaptation in Zimbabwe. International Institute for Environment and  Development (IIED), London.’ (2012) 

Bhatta, G. D., Aggarwal, P. K., Poudel, S., & Belgrave, D. A. ‘Climate-induced  migration in South Asia: Migration decisions and the gender dimensions of adverse 

climatic events. The Journal of Rural and Community Development.’ (2015) 10(4), 1- 23. 

Tanjeela, M., & Rutherford, S. ‘The Influence of Gender Relations on Women’s  Involvement and Experience in Climate Change Adaptation Programs in Bangladesh.’  (2018) Sage Open, 8(4). 

Cutter, S. L. ‘The forgotten casualties redux: Women, children, and disaster risk.  Global Environmental Change.’ (2017) 42, 117-121. 

Wheeler, N., Watts, N. Climate Change: From Science to Practice. Curr Envir Health  Rpt 5, 170–178 (2018). 

Suza, Ma; Warner, Jeroen; Pacillo, Grazia; Läderach, Peter; and van Dijk, Han.  ‘Women’s vulnerabilities to climate insecurity and violence: Household-level evidence  from Bangladesh. Rural Sociology.’ (2025) 90(3): e70022. 

Sithole, E. ‘Climate change journalism in South Africa: noticeable improvements, less  than adequate.’ (2023) 

Ngcobo N, “South African Environmental Law and Political Accountability: Local  Councils in the Spotlight” PER / PELJ (26). 

Gina Ziervogel, Johan Enqvist, Luke Metelerkamp & John van Breda. ‘Supporting  Transformative climate adaptation: community-level capacity building and knowledge  co-creation in South Africa, Climate Policy.’ (2022) 22:5, 607-622

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From the ground up: Abahlali baseMjondolo’s pioneering approach to climate disaster  management in South Africa accessed 21 January 2026. 

https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247818819694 accessed 21 January 2026. 

Mashatile: More action needed to tackle climate change impact on African women and  youth accessed 21 January 2026. 

https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018812620 accessed 21 January 2026. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.12.010 accessed 21 January 2026. 

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323556240_Climate_Change_From_Scien ce_to_Practice accessed 21 January 2026. 

https://doi.org/10.1111/ruso.70022 accessed 21 January 2026. 

Earthlife Africa Johannesburg v Minister of Environmental Affairs and Others  (65662/16) [2017] ZAGPPHC 58; [2017] 2 All SA 519 (GP) (8 March 2017) accessed  21 January 2026. 

https://cer.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Final-Director-Duties-and-Liability-for Climate-Risk-under-SA-Law.pdf accessed 21 January 2026.

https://www.clientearth.org/media/1dmfkuvo/gpf-vs-totalenergies_english_machine translated.pdf accessed 21 January 2026. 

https://doi.org/10.15626/fojo.s.202301 accessed 21 January 2026. https://doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2023/v26i0a17260 accessed 21 January 2026. https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2020.1863180 accessed 21 January 2026.

1 Manga, A., Dartchiev, D., and Variava, E. ‘Healthcare and climate change: a South African health  professionals’ perspective.’ (2022) 4 (3), 173-177.

2 Johnston, P., Egbebiyi, T.S., Zvobgo, L., Omar, S.A., Cartwright, A. and Hewitson, B., ‘Climate change  impacts in South Africa: What climate change means for a country and its people. University of Cape  Town: Cape Town, South Africa.’ (2024)

3 From the ground up: Abahlali baseMjondolo’s pioneering approach to climate disaster management  in South Africa accessed 21 January 2026. 

4 Williams, D. S., Máñez Costa, M., Sutherland, C., Celliers, L., & Scheffran, J. ‘Vulnerability of  informal settlements in the context of rapid urbanisation and climate change. Environment &  Urbanisation.’ (2019) 31(1), 157-176. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247818819694 accessed 21  January 2026. 

5 Mashatile: More action needed to tackle climate change impact on African women and youth accessed  21 January 2026. 

6 Brown, D., Chanakira, R., Chatiza, K., Dhliwayo, M., Dodman, M., Masiiwa, D., Muchadenyika, D.,  Mugabe, P. and Zvigadza, S. ‘Climate Change Impacts, Vulnerability and Adaptation in Zimbabwe.  International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), London.’ (2012)

7 Bhatta, G. D., Aggarwal, P. K., Poudel, S., & Belgrave, D. A. ‘Climate-induced migration in South  Asia: Migration decisions and the gender dimensions of adverse climatic events. The Journal of Rural  and Community Development.’ (2015) 10(4), 1-23. 

8 Tanjeela, M & Rutherford, S. ‘The Influence of Gender Relations on Women’s Involvement and  Experience in Climate Change Adaptation Programs in Bangladesh.’ (2018) https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018812620 accessed 21 January 2026.

9 Cutter, S. L. ‘The forgotten casualties redux: Women, children, and disaster risk. Global  Environmental Change.’ (2017) 42, 117-121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.12.010 accessed 21 January 2026. 

10 Wheeler, N., Watts, N. Climate Change: From Science to Practice. Curr Envir Health Rpt 5, 170– 178  (2018). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323556240_Climate_Change_From_Science_to_P ractice accessed 21 January 2026. 

11 Suza, Ma; Warner, Jeroen; Pacillo, Grazia; Läderach, Peter; and van Dijk, Han. ‘Women’s  vulnerabilities to climate insecurity and violence: Household-level evidence from Bangladesh. Rural  Sociology.’ (2025) 90(3): e70022. https://doi.org/10.1111/ruso.70022 21 January 2026.

12 Johnston, P., Egbebiyi, T.S., Zvobgo, L., Omar, S.A., Cartwright, A. and Hewitson, B., 2024.  ‘Climate change impacts in South Africa: What climate change means for a country and its  people. University of Cape Town: Cape Town, South Africa.’ (2024)

13 S24 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. 

14 S27 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. 

15 Act 107 of 1998. 

16 Act 22 of 2024. 

17 Act 57 of 2002. 

18 Act 32 of 2000.

19 Earthlife Africa Johannesburg v Minister of Environmental Affairs and Others 2017 (2) All SA 519  (GP). Earthlife Africa Johannesburg v Minister of Environmental Affairs and Others (65662/16) [2017]  ZAGPPHC 58; [2017] 2 All SA 519 (GP) (8 March 2017) accessed 21 January 2026.

20 Centre for Environmental Rights, Legal Memorandum: Director Duties and Liability for Climate Risk  Under SA Law (Sep. 2024), https://cer.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Final-Director-Duties-and Liability-for-Climate-Risk-under-SA-Law.pdf accessed 21 January 2026.01.21 

21https://www.clientearth.org/media/1dmfkuvo/gpf-vs-totalenergies_english_machine-translated.pdf accessed 21 January 2026.

22 Sithole, E. ‘Climate change journalism in South Africa: noticeable improvements, less than  adequate.’ (2023) https://doi.org/10.15626/fojo.s.202301 accessed 21 January 2026.

23 Ngcobo N, “South African Environmental Law and Political Accountability: Local Councils in the  Spotlight” PER / PELJ (26). https://doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2023/v26i0a17260 accessed 21  January 2026.

24 Gina Ziervogel, Johan Enqvist, Luke Metelerkamp & John van Breda. ‘Supporting Transformative  climate adaptation: community-level capacity building and knowledge co-creation in South Africa,