SOCIAL MEDIA MISINFORMATION AND ITS ROLE IN POLITICAL MANIPULATION AND ELECTION INTERFERENCE IN INDIA

Authored By: Kartikey Kesharwani

Law College Dehradun faculty of Uttaranchal University

his quote underscores the unprecedented speed and reach of misinformation on social media, where falsehoods often outpace verified information. In India, this phenomenon poses serious challenges to democratic integrity, as manipulated content influences public perception, voter behaviour, and trust in institutions, potentially destabilizing the nation’s social and political fabric.

ABSTRACT

In this study researcher examines the role of social media misinformation in political manipulation and election interference in India, a nation characterized by its linguistic diversity and complex socio-political landscape. Misinformation, defined as false or misleading information shared without harmful intent, poses significant challenges to democratic processes, particularly during elections. The research highlights notable incidents of misinformation during the 2019 General Elections and various state elections, illustrating its impact on voter behaviour and public opinion. Key mechanisms of misinformation spread, including the use of bots, troll farms, and algorithmic amplification in regional languages, are analysed. The study also explores the legal frameworks currently in place to address misinformation and identifies gaps that need to be filled to enhance regulatory effectiveness. Furthermore, it discusses the psychological and sociological effects of misinformation on different communities and its long-term implications for social harmony in India. The findings underscore the urgent need for improved digital literacy programs, robust policy recommendations for legislators and social media platforms, and the adoption of emerging technologies to combat misinformation effectively. This research aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of misinformation’s dynamics in India’s electoral context and offers actionable insights for safeguarding democratic integrity.

Keywords: Social Media, Misinformation, Political Manipulation, Election Interference, India, Digital Literacy, Legal Frameworks, Voter Behaviour.

INTRODUCTION

In India, the rapid rise of social media has revolutionized how information is disseminated, especially during elections. However, this transformation has also led to an alarming increase in misinformation and disinformation, which pose significant threats to democratic processes and social cohesion. Misinformation refers to false or misleading information shared without harmful intent, while disinformation involves the deliberate spread of falsehoods. Both forms have become prevalent on platforms such as WhatsApp, Facebook, and Twitter, significantly impacting public opinion and voter behaviour.

A recent survey conducted by the digital rights organization Social & Media Matters revealed that nearly 80% of first-time voters in India reported encountering fake news on social media platforms. The survey highlighted that WhatsApp is a major conduit for misinformation, with 29.8% of respondents identifying it as their primary source of fake news. This trend raises concerns about the electorate’s ability to discern accurate information from false narratives, particularly among younger voters who rely heavily on social media for news consumption.[2]

The problem of misinformation is not new; it has historical roots in traditional media but has intensified with the advent of digital communication. The manipulation of social media algorithms allows misleading content to reach vast audiences, making it easier for false narratives to spread. For example, during the 2019 General Elections, political parties leveraged these platforms to disseminate misleading information about their opponents and manipulate public sentiment. The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and its supporters have been particularly noted for using divisive rhetoric and hate speech on social media to polarize voters.[3]

Moreover, misinformation impacts not only electoral outcomes but also public health and social stability. False information regarding health issues, such as vaccine misinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic, has led to widespread panic and mistrust in healthcare systems. Additionally, communal tensions have been exacerbated by misleading narratives that incite violence and deepen societal divides. For instance, rumours about child kidnappings have resulted in mob lynching’s in various parts of India[4].[5]

Legal frameworks in India aimed at curbing misinformation include the Information Technology Act and various provisions under the Indian Penal Code. However, enforcement remains a challenge due to the lack of specific laws targeting fake news and the need to balance regulation with freedom of speech. The Election Commission of India (ECI) has initiated measures such as the Voluntary Code of Ethics for social media, urging platforms to maintain transparency during elections. Despite these efforts, detecting misinformation across India’s diverse linguistic landscape remains complex.[6] [7]

The term “WhatsApp University” has gained traction in discussions about misinformation in India, referring to the rampant sharing of fake news through WhatsApp forwards. This phenomenon highlights the difficulty in regulating private messaging platforms where misinformation can spread unchecked among closed groups. Experts argue that enhancing digital literacy among citizens is crucial for empowering individuals to critically evaluate information sources.

As India approaches its next general elections in 2024, the stakes are higher than ever. With increasing internet penetration and smartphone usage, social media will continue to play a critical role in shaping political discourse. However, this also raises concerns about AI-generated content and deepfakes complicating the misinformation landscape further.

Lastly addressing social media misinformation is essential for preserving democratic integrity in India. A comprehensive approach involving legal reforms, enhanced digital literacy programs, and collaboration between social media platforms and regulatory bodies is vital for effectively combating this pervasive issue. As misinformation continues to evolve with technology, proactive measures are necessary to ensure that Indian voters can navigate this complex information environment responsibly.

OVERVIEW OF MISINFORMATION IN INDIAN POLITICS

Misinformation has become a significant issue in Indian politics, especially with the rise of social media as a primary source of information. In a study analysing 419 fake news items, it was found that misinformation serves mainly political and religious purposes, often propagated by the BJP’s digital army to support Hindu-nationalist narratives (Quandt et al., 2019). The rapid increase in social media users—approximately 376.1 million in India—has facilitated the spread of misinformation, particularly through platforms like WhatsApp, Facebook, and YouTube (Keelery, 2020).[8] This phenomenon is exacerbated by a lack of digital literacy among users, making them more vulnerable to misleading information.

SOCIAL MEDIA AS A TOOL FOR POLITICAL MANIPULATION IN INDIA

Social media has emerged as a powerful tool for political manipulation in India. According to a Pew Research Centre survey, nearly half of Indians rely on social media for news (Pew Research Centre, 2019).[9] During the 2019 General Elections, pro-BJP pages disseminated misleading information extensively, targeting specific communities with narratives designed to incite fear or anger. For example, claims about “Vote Jihad” circulated widely on these platforms, suggesting that Muslim voters were conspiring to alter electoral outcomes (Times of India, 2021).[10] The use of “cyber troops”—organized groups that create and spread misinformation—has further complicated the political landscape. These groups employ automated bots and coordinated trolling strategies to amplify specific messages and suppress dissenting voices (Digital Forensic Research Lab, 2020).[11]

THEORIES ON MISINFORMATION SPREAD IN INDIAN SOCIETY

The spread of misinformation in India can be analysed through various theoretical frameworks. Echo chambers are particularly relevant; users often engage with content that aligns with their pre-existing beliefs, reinforcing divisive narratives (Sunstein, 2001). This phenomenon is exacerbated by India’s linguistic diversity; misinformation tailored to specific language-speaking communities can deepen societal divides (Nature, 2020).[12] Confirmation bias also plays a significant role in how misinformation is consumed and shared within Indian society. Users are more likely to believe information that confirms their existing views while dismissing contradictory evidence.

The implications of such misinformation extend beyond immediate electoral impacts; they threaten long-term social harmony and trust in democratic institutions. Research indicates that persistent exposure to misinformation can lead to increased polarization within society, challenging the very fabric of India’s pluralistic democracy (Centre for Democracy and Development, 2021).[13]

LEGAL AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN CURBING MISINFORMATION IN INDIA

The legal landscape surrounding misinformation in India is complex and evolving. Existing laws like the Information Technology Act (2000) provide some mechanisms for addressing online misinformation but often lack specificity regarding newer technologies like AI-generated content or deepfakes (Internet Freedom Foundation, 2021) 4. Recent policy initiatives such as the Intermediary Guidelines aim to enhance accountability among social media platforms regarding content moderation but have faced criticism for potentially overreaching into free speech territory.

Ethical considerations surrounding regulation are significant as well. Balancing the need for accurate information dissemination with protecting individual rights is contentious. Any regulatory framework must ensure transparency and accountability while safeguarding freedom of expression (Centre for Internet & Society, 2020).[14]

In summary, addressing misinformation in Indian politics requires a nuanced understanding of its historical context, mechanisms of spread via social media, theoretical frameworks explaining its prevalence, and legal and ethical considerations surrounding regulation. This multifaceted approach is essential for developing effective strategies to combat misinformation and protect democratic integrity in India.

THE MECHANISMS OF MISINFORMATION ON SOCIAL MEDIA IN INDIA

Types of Misinformation in Indian Political Contexts

Misinformation in India takes several forms, often with political intentions aimed at swaying public opinion. It can range from outright false news, such as fabricated claims about a politician’s actions, to misleading images or videos doctored to misrepresent facts.

One major example of this was during the 2019 Indian General Elections, when several fake images and videos circulated, misrepresenting the actions of political leaders or associating them with controversial or divisive issues. These forms of political misinformation often tap into existing societal divisions, particularly around caste, religion, and regional identities.

For instance, doctored videos of political rallies or speeches have been shared widely to create a perception of anti-minority rhetoric, which is especially potent in a country as diverse as India. The spread of these manipulative narratives often happens faster in rural and semi-urban areas where access to alternative information and media is limited. This phenomenon has been found to exacerbate pre-existing societal tensions, thus influencing voting decisions and public discourse on a massive scale.[15]

The Role of Algorithms in Amplifying Misinformation

Social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and WhatsApp leverage sophisticated algorithms designed to maximize user engagement. These algorithms prioritize content that generates higher interaction rates, such as likes, comments, shares, and reactions. Unfortunately, such content is often emotional or sensational, which means misinformation—designed to provoke strong reactions—gets boosted by these platforms’ own internal systems.

In the context of Indian elections, algorithms amplify political misinformation by prioritizing fake or exaggerated claims about candidates or parties, creating echo chambers of political thought. These algorithms tend to cater to specific audience groups based on their past behaviours, leading to the formation of information bubbles where users are exposed to limited, one-sided viewpoints.

Further complicating this issue in India is the linguistic and cultural diversity of the population. Social media platforms may not be able to accurately filter content in various regional languages, allowing misinformation in languages like Hindi, Bengali, Tamil, and Kannada to spread unchecked. As misinformation becomes localized and specific to different regions, it deepens societal divisions, which can directly affect voter behaviour.[16]

Bots, Troll Farms, and Coordinated Inauthentic Behaviour in India

One of the most significant concerns regarding social media misinformation in India is the use of bots and troll farms. A bot refers to a piece of automated software that mimics human activity to amplify messages or engage with users, while troll farms are coordinated groups that create and spread divisive or false content to manipulate public discourse. In India, both bots and troll farms have been extensively used in election cycles, with actors trying to sway voters by generating fake support or attacking political opponents.

For example, in the 2019 General Elections, it was widely reported that several social media campaigns involved fake profiles, including foreign nationals, participating in Indian political discourse. These were created to spread communal and divisive narratives that benefited certain political agendas. Through these campaigns, misinformation, including fake news and malicious rumours, was artificially amplified by bots and paid trolls, leading to widespread political polarization.

Another aspect of this phenomenon is “astroturfing,” where the appearance of grassroots support is fabricated using coordinated efforts. These activities are often difficult to trace, and the sheer volume of false information generated overwhelms efforts to fact-check or remove harmful content in a timely manner.[17]

Here is the graph illustrating the mechanisms of misinformation on social media in India.

ELECTION INTERFERENCE VIA SOCIAL MEDIA MISINFORMATION IN INDIA

Notable Incidents in Indian Elections

The role of social media misinformation in Indian elections has been seen most starkly in the 2019 General Elections, where false claims and divisive narratives were propagated at an unprecedented scale. These included the spread of fake videos and images on WhatsApp, particularly in regional languages, targeting vulnerable populations such as rural voters.

In one incident, a viral WhatsApp message falsely attributed a comment to a prominent political leader, claiming they had made derogatory statements about a particular religious group. This misinformation quickly spread across the country, especially in rural areas, and was widely shared among groups that had limited access to fact-checking resources.[18] Additionally, during the 2020 Delhi assembly elections, several instances of manipulated videos, false reports about voter suppression, and incorrect polling data spread on platforms like Facebook and Twitter. These incidents fuelled confusion, mistrust, and even violence in some areas. The targeted misinformation specifically aimed to influence specific voting blocs, such as youth voters or urban dwellers, with misleading information about candidates’ past records.[19]

Comparative Analysis of Indian Case Studies

A comparison between national and state elections reveals that misinformation manifests differently depending on the scale and context of the election. In national elections, misinformation is typically more broad-based and aims to appeal to nationalistic sentiments. For instance, during the 2019 General Elections, misinformation focused on portraying candidates as “anti-national” or “unpatriotic.”

In contrast, state elections are often marked by region-specific misinformation, reflecting local issues, caste dynamics, or ethnic identities. In West Bengal’s 2021 state elections, misinformation targeted religious communities, with fake claims that certain groups were being persecuted or unfairly treated. Similarly, in Uttar Pradesh’s 2017 elections, there was extensive use of fake videos and fabricated news stories related to law and order to discredit the ruling party.[20]

Lessons Learned from Each Case

The cases of misinformation during the Indian elections highlight the importance of a nuanced, regional approach to combating fake news. While national efforts to fight misinformation are essential, each state or region requires tailored strategies based on local languages, cultural nuances, and political realities. For instance, misinformation in Uttar Pradesh can be very different from misinformation in Tamil Nadu, necessitating customized interventions that target specific communities and local issues.

Moreover, each election cycle teaches important lessons about the need for faster response times from regulators and platforms. For example, during the 2020 Delhi elections, fact-checking organizations were overwhelmed by the volume of false content, which led to significant delays in removing harmful content. Additionally, the role of public education campaigns in helping voters identify and reject misinformation should be emphasized.

THE ROLE OF SOCIAL MEDIA IN POLITICAL CAMPAIGN CONTROVERSIES

The Election Commission of India directed the BJP in Jharkhand to remove a social media video deemed objectionable after complaints by Congress and the JMM. This highlighted persistent concerns about social media being used to spread inflammatory or misleading content during elections.[21]
In Manipur, the National People’s Party (NPP) withdrew support from the BJP-led state government. Although the BJP retained a majority, the move highlighted ongoing instability in the region following recent ethnic violence, which has drawn criticism of the government’s handling of the crisis.[22]
Kailash Gahlot, a senior AAP leader and Delhi’s Transport Minister, resigned from the party, alleging internal challenges. AAP claimed his resignation was influenced by BJP-driven enforcement agency actions, such as raids by the ED and Income Tax Department. Speculations arose about Gahlot potentially joining the BJP, intensifying political tensions in Delhi ahead of upcoming elections.[23]

IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA MISINFORMATION ON PUBLIC OPINION AND POLITICAL OUTCOMES IN INDIA

Psychological and Sociological Impacts on Public Perception in India

Misinformation on social media has significant psychological effects on the Indian electorate. It capitalizes on cognitive biases such as confirmation bias, where individuals are more likely to accept information that supports their pre-existing beliefs. This phenomenon is particularly noticeable in India, where political identities are often intertwined with social identities such as religion, caste, and region. Consequently, misinformation that reinforces these identities has a more potent effect on voter behaviour.

The sociological impact is also considerable, as misinformation plays a major role in social polarization. For example, during elections, fake news narratives are often designed to exploit religious, linguistic, or caste-based fault lines, exacerbating divisions within communities. As a result, misinformation spreads faster in communities where there is already significant socio-political tension, leading to further societal fragmentation. The targeted nature of political misinformation, combined with these deep-seated identities, makes it even harder for the electorate to evaluate information objectively. This not only affects individual voting behaviour but also contributes to the growing disillusionment with political institutions. Over time, this can weaken trust in the electoral system, as voters become uncertain about the veracity of any political information.[24]

Influence on Voter Behaviour and Electoral Outcomes in India

Social media misinformation has a direct impact on voter behaviour in India. A study by the Digital India Initiative found that nearly 50% of voters admitted that information encountered on social media influenced their voting decisions. Often, misinformation works by tapping into emotional triggers, which can distort rational voting behaviour. The political effectiveness of misinformation is amplified by its ability to spread rapidly across the country, especially through mobile platforms such as WhatsApp, which has a massive user base in India.

Misinformation often targets vulnerable voters who have limited access to verified information sources. These voters are more likely to believe in misleading claims about candidates or parties, which can significantly affect the outcomes of elections. Additionally, misinformation is also used to undermine voter confidence by spreading rumours about electoral fraud or manipulating voter turnout. For example, during the 2020 Delhi assembly elections, a viral message on WhatsApp falsely claimed that voting machines were tampered with, which caused confusion among voters and led to scepticism about the integrity of the elections.[25]

The spread of misinformation is not just limited to affecting individual votes; it also has the power to sway key demographics, such as young voters, women, and marginalized communities, by creating narratives that appeal to their specific concerns or fears.[26]

Long-term Implications for Indian Democracy and Social Harmony

The long-term impact of social media misinformation on Indian democracy is concerning. While it may seem like a temporary issue tied to election periods, the effects are far-reaching. One of the key concerns is the potential erosion of democratic norms, particularly the public’s trust in the electoral process. If misinformation continues to manipulate public opinion on a large scale, it could foster a general sense of disillusionment and apathy among voters, undermining the core principles of democracy. Social harmony is also at risk, as misinformation often exploits communal tensions. For example, during the 2019 elections, fake news campaigns targeted Muslim communities, portraying them as threats to national security, which stoked communal violence. Such campaigns, if left unchecked, can incite real-world violence, deepen societal divides, and perpetuate cycles of conflict.

The challenge is not just to contain misinformation during elections but also to build long-term resilience in the public by promoting media literacy, critical thinking, and an informed electorate. Failure to address misinformation can lead to the normalization of fake news and the deterioration of public discourse, weakening the foundations of Indian democracy in the long run.[27]

LEGAL FRAMEWORKS AND POLICY RESPONSES IN INDIA

Current Indian Laws and Regulations Against Misinformation

India has several legal provisions aimed at combating misinformation, although challenges in enforcement persist. The Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000 provides a legal framework for addressing cybercrimes, including the dissemination of fake news and malicious content online. Section 66A of the IT Act, which criminalized the sending of offensive messages through communication services, had been an important tool for addressing harmful online content, but was struck down by the Supreme Court in 2015 due to its broad and vague nature. Since then, new regulations have been introduced.

Additionally, Section 505 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) addresses the spread of false information that causes public mischief. In the context of elections, the Representation of the People Act, 1951 governs the conduct of political campaigns, including content shared by candidates and parties. During elections, Section 126 of the Act prohibits the distribution of inflammatory content close to election dates to maintain public order.

Despite these frameworks, legal enforcement remains inconsistent, and social media platforms are often slow to remove harmful content, leaving a regulatory gap that political manipulators exploit.[28]

Recent Policy Initiatives and Proposals in India

In response to the growing challenge of misinformation, the Indian government has implemented several new policy initiatives. The Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code, introduced in 2021, require social media platforms to implement more robust mechanisms to prevent the spread of fake news. These guidelines mandate social media companies to establish grievance redressal systems and to cooperate with law enforcement in identifying and removing misinformation.

Additionally, the Election Commission of India (ECI) has worked on developing the Voluntary Code of Ethics for social media, which aims to promote transparency in online political ads and prevent the spread of misleading content during elections. This code requires political parties and candidates to disclose the origin of political advertisements and ensure that they are not misleading or fake.

However, these measures face significant challenges in implementation, particularly given the massive scale of social media platforms and the rapid pace at which misinformation spreads.[29]

Role of Social Media Platforms in Curbing Misinformation in India

While the Indian government has implemented several policies, the responsibility also lies with social media platforms. Companies like WhatsApp, Facebook, and Twitter have been under increasing scrutiny for the role their platforms play in spreading misinformation. In response, these platforms have introduced certain measures, such as fact-checking partnerships and content labelling.

WhatsApp, for example, has introduced restrictions on message forwarding to curb the spread of rumours, while Facebook has invested in independent fact-checking initiatives. Twitter, on the other hand, has developed policies to label false or misleading information, particularly related to elections.

Despite these efforts, social media platforms are often criticized for not doing enough. The sheer volume of content posted daily makes it challenging to monitor effectively, and the use of private groups and encrypted messaging services makes it difficult for platforms to track misinformation. Additionally, political and financial pressures often lead to delayed or incomplete responses.[30]

CHALLENGES IN ADDRESSING SOCIAL MEDIA MISINFORMATION IN INDIA

Jurisdictional Issues and Regional Information Spread

India’s vast geographical and cultural diversity creates significant challenges in regulating and countering misinformation. The country has over 22 official languages, with each state also having its own dialects and socio-cultural context. Misinformation often spreads in regional languages, making it difficult for centralized authorities and social media platforms to detect and address it effectively. For example, a video manipulated in Hindi or Bengali may not be flagged as misinformation by automated tools trained primarily on English-language content, resulting in unchecked spread across local communities.

Furthermore, cross-border misinformation—especially from neighbouring countries with adversarial relationships—has become a growing concern. During elections, foreign actors may exploit India’s electoral process by deliberately spreading false narratives or creating divisive content. The difficulty of enforcing legal standards in these cases adds another layer of complexity. Given the international nature of the internet, jurisdictional issues arise when misinformation originates from outside India, making it harder to hold responsible parties accountable.

To overcome these challenges, both technological solutions and collaborative international efforts are essential. There is a need for cross-border cooperation between governments and tech companies to track misinformation that transcends national borders.[31]

Technological and Infrastructure Barriers in Misinformation Detection

While technological advancements in AI and machine learning have improved the detection of fake news and misinformation, India faces significant infrastructure challenges that impede effective monitoring. Rural India, where misinformation often thrives due to lower media literacy and limited access to reliable news sources, lacks the necessary infrastructure to combat digital misinformation. Furthermore, the sheer volume of content shared daily on platforms like WhatsApp makes it nearly impossible to manually verify each message.

The lack of robust digital literacy programs across the country also means that a large portion of the population remains unaware of how to critically assess the information they encounter online. This gap leaves many vulnerable to misinformation campaigns, especially during high-stakes periods like elections.

Moreover, the technological tools used by platforms like Facebook or Twitter to flag and remove harmful content often struggle to understand the regional and linguistic nuances of Indian political discourse. As a result, automated systems may miss content that should be flagged, or mistakenly label legitimate content as fake, further complicating efforts to combat misinformation.[32][33]

FUTURE DIRECTIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS

Strengthening Legal Frameworks for Social Media Misinformation

India’s existing legal frameworks, including the IT Act and the Representation of the People Act, provide a foundation for addressing misinformation. However, these laws need to be updated to meet the challenges posed by modern social media platforms. For example, the introduction of clear and specific legal provisions targeting misinformation during election periods would help streamline enforcement. Additionally, laws should be revised to reflect the complexity of digital content—such as deepfakes and coordinated inauthentic behaviour—and provide appropriate penalties.

One potential solution could be the creation of a special cyber task force dedicated to tackling misinformation during election seasons. This task force would work with tech companies to identify and remove fake content swiftly, as well as with fact-checking organizations to disseminate verified information to the public.[34]

Media Literacy and Public Education Campaigns

To address the root causes of misinformation, media literacy programs should be incorporated into India’s educational system at all levels. By teaching students to critically assess information from a young age, India can build a more resilient electorate capable of discerning fact from fiction. Such programs should focus not only on how to spot fake news but also on the social implications of misinformation, particularly in the context of elections.

In addition, public education campaigns must be launched on a larger scale to raise awareness about the dangers of misinformation. These campaigns should involve collaboration between the government, civil society organizations, and tech companies to ensure that the message reaches as many people as possible, especially those in rural areas with limited access to mainstream media outlets.[35]

Enhancing Collaboration Between Government, Tech Companies, and Civil Society

A multi-stakeholder approach involving the Indian government, social media companies, and civil society organizations is critical to curbing the spread of misinformation during elections. This collaboration should include setting clear guidelines for social media platforms regarding the removal of harmful content, improving transparency in political advertisements, and providing accessible fact-checking tools for the public.

Moreover, regular audits of social media platforms should be conducted to assess the effectiveness of their anti-misinformation policies. Tech companies must also be encouraged to take a proactive role in moderating content and to work with local organizations to develop more region-specific content moderation strategies.[36]

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the impact of social media misinformation on political processes in India is both pervasive and profound. From influencing voter behaviour to eroding trust in democratic institutions, the consequences are far-reaching. While India’s government, tech companies, and civil society have made some strides in combating this issue, much more needs to be done to ensure the integrity of elections and the health of Indian democracy. A multi-pronged approach involving stronger legal frameworks, digital literacy initiatives, and collaborative efforts among various stakeholders is critical to tackling the growing menace of misinformation. Only through sustained and concerted efforts can we protect India’s democratic processes from the insidious effects of misinformation.

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[1] Author, 4^th Year student at Law College Dehradun faculty Uttaranchal University, Dehradun, 248007

[2] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/fake-news-on-social-media-survey/articleshow/106899024.cms

[3] https://time.com/6984947/india-election-disinformation-modi/

[4] https://www.drishtiias.com/pdf/1584990847-the-problem-of-fake-news-in-india-issues-concerns-and-regulation.pdf

[5] https://theprobe.in/media/fake-news-and-misinformation-indias-biggest-threats-4758254

[6] https://www.ajpor.org/article/19049-social-media-fake-news-in-india

[7] https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/2207/2207.01508.pdf

[8] https://www.ajpor.org/article/19049-social-media-fake-news-in-india

[9] https://www.osavul.cloud/blog/fake-news-and-disinformation-in-india

[10] https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-worlds-biggest-covid-misinformation-source-study/articleshow/86229400.cms

[11] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fake_news_in_India

[12] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fake_news_in_India