Legal and Ecological Dimensions of Hill Cutting and Unsustainable Development in the Chittagong Hill Tracts: Challengesof Biodiversity Conservation and Governance

Abstract: 

The unique biodiversity and ecological balance of the Chittagong Hill Tracks (CHT) are under  serious threat due to hill cutting and unsustainable development activities. The natural landscape  and habitats have been compromised as natural landscapes have been replaced with large scale  infrastructure projects ranging from road construction, tourist resorts and commercial facilities  which have in turn destroyed the traditional means of living by indigenous and local communities.  These endeavors while frequently mased in rhetoric around economic progress and enhanced  quality of life, have enduring ecological and societal impacts. While any laws exist, intended to  regulate all forms of hill cutting and development in CHT, implementation and enforcement is  rarely adequate or consistent. Consequently, this imposes further marginalization and removal of  indigenous peoples cultural and spiritual connection to land. This article investigates the impacts of hill cutting and development on biodiversity and the people living within it and determining the  shortcomings of the current laws and policies in mitigating it in CHT. 

Keywords: CHT, Biodiversity, Hill Cutting, Unsustainable, Ecology, Environment, Indigenous

Introduction:  

As the western part of Indo-Burma extension, the Chittagong Hill Tracts is considered biodiversity  hotspot in southeast Bangladesh and has global significance.1 Covering approximately 80% of the  country’s plant and animal species, with its rugged territories large jungles ad intricate waterways,  this particular varied area, is an invaluable storehouse of biodiversity.2 CHT has crystalized the  long line of history as cultural diverse and ecological phenomenon where twelve different  indigenous communities whose livelihood and way of life are intimately interrelated with the status  of the ecosystem and biodiversity. 3 But this delicate balance is irrevocable and increasingly upset by human induced pressures. 

Unsustainable development and large-scale hill cutting disrupt life in CHT and environment. Also, these kinds of propagation contribute to huge loss of habitat, landslides and erosion.4 Additionally,  the area’s forest cover has drastically decreased because of the growth of unapproved settlements,  commercial programs like tourism and infrastructure projects, many of which are carried out  violating the current environmental regulations.5 The loss of vegetation not only impacts the local  climate but also directly contributes to a cascade of negative ecological consequences that threaten  the very existence of CHT’s unique biodiversity. A notable reduction in landscape diversity has  also been connected to this quick and extensive land use change which is being fueled by  population pressure and commercial growth.6 

There are many different sociopolitical and economic factors that contribute to this environmental  deterioration. Pressure on land and resources has increased due to both natural population growth  and the migration of people from plains.7 The rate of deforestation and land degradation has  increased due to numerous instances where government and private projects have put short-term financial gains ahead of long-term environmental sustainability.8 

The purpose of this article is to examine the direct and indirect effects of the unpermitted  development and hill cutting on the biodiversity of plants and animals in CHT. It will specifically  examine the ecological effects of these human-caused activities and identify weaknesses in legal  implantation. Because the wellbeing of local ecosystem is inextricably linked to the indigenous  peoples’ livelihoods, cultural heritage and spiritual ties to the land, this paper will look at how such  environmental degradation violates their rights. 

Methodology:  

This study adopts doctrinal approach. Primary sources for this study include the Constitution of  Bangladesh, Bangladesh Environmental Conservation Act 19995, the Forest Act 1927, the  Chittagong Hill Tracts Regulations 1900, the Wildlife (Conservation and Security) Act 2012,  Biodiversity Act 2017 and Building Construction Act 1952 alongside relevant international  judgements, government notifications. Secondary sources comprise academic articles, books,  daily newspapers, published reports and publications from international organizations. By  interpreting these materials, the study ais to identify weaknesses in the existing legal and  institutional framework, highlight the consequences of hill cutting and unsustainable development on biodiversity. 

Legal Framework Applicable in CHT and Challenges:  

The legal regime of Bangladesh for protection of environment and land laws deals with the correct  use of natural resources, development of land promotion of environmental sustainability and  regulating human interference with nature. The current existing laws on protecting environment  are Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act 1995, Forest Act 1927, Wildlife (Conservation and  Security) Act 2012, Chittagong Hill Tracts Regulation 1900, Environmental Court Act 2010, Biodiversity Act 2017, Building Construction Act 1952. These laws take up matters about forests biodiversity, pollution and land use when degradation of sensitive ecosystems is involved.  However, these las also have loopholes and implementing mechanism problems by which one may  bypass the law. 

Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act 1995 and Bangladesh Environment Court Act 2010  are two of the important legislative tools that provide legal foundation for environmental  Governance. However, one of the major hindrances of enforcement is the lack of institutional  capacity. Transparency Internation Bangladesh has called the Department of Environment (DoE),  the main organization in charge of environmental compliance, a weak, corrupted and incapable public office.9 Lack of technical expertise and the surveys done by Doe is backdated as they don’t  use contemporary technologies like GIS.10 Poor coordination between different national regional and local agencies results in jurisdictional conflict.11 

The primary agency in charge of carrying out the Forest Act 1927 is the Forest Officers appointed  by the government.12 However, the law from the colonial era drew a lot of criticism for its  antiquated method of managing forests.13 Instead of conservation o the rights of local communities,  its focus was on resource extraction and generating income for British.14 Another factor  contributing to the issue is the absence of coordination among local communities, civil society and  government organizations.15 

While section 3C of the Building Construction Act 1952 bans razing or cutting hills without prior  sanction, the very same section provides for that loophole as it permits such activities where they  are in public interest.16 The act however does not explain what public interest means, which leaves  space for misinterpretation and misuse by authorities. Several reports from academic institutions,  NGOs, and news outlets constantly highlight the failure of administration in protecting  environment from uncoordinated infrastructure projects, illegal logging which contributes to  deforestation in CHT.17 The continued failure to fully implement the 1997 CHT Peace Accord is a  major problem. Important clauses have not been fulfilled, including the removal of temporary  military camps and the complete operation of the CHT Land Dispute Resolution Commission and  indigenous communities believe that their land and forest are not protected as a result.18 Despite  the accord promised the gradual withdrawal of military camps from CHT, many military camps  remain in place and military presence is still significant part of the regions’ administration undermining the civilian authority that was supposed to be established.19 Illegal leases for  commercial plantations and rubber have been given to non-local people and companies and  authorities’ unwillingness to terminate unlawful leases permits the destruction go unchecked.20 

The tripartite collusion among politicians, bureaucrats and polluting industries that institutionalize  corruption at every stage of the enforcement process has been the subject of several studies and  reports.21 This fosters a culture of impunity in which people frequently transgress the law and  morality for their own benefit.22 

Development Pressure and Impact of Hill Cutting In CHT: 

CHT is home to twelve indigenous communities and is renowned for its untamed hills, thick forests  and varied ecosystems.23 There are several institutional and socioeconomic factors that contribute  to the complicated problems of hill cutting in CHT. One of the main causes is unplanned, fast urban growth. Hills are unlawfully leveled to create housing and resident areas, frequently in  haphazard manner, as cities like Bandarban, Khagracchari and Rangamati grow.24 Another factor  driving up demand for land is migration of people from the plains.25 Building roads and other  public infrastructures, which are necessary for connectivity but frequently entail large scale hill  excavation without a thorough environmental assessment.26 

The desire for financial gain is a primary driver of hill cutting. These activities are carried out for  financial gain by influential people, brick kiln owners, and real estate developers.27 The soil from the hills is a valuable resource used for filling lowlands and producing bricks. Political patronage  and lax law enforcement frequently allow these illicit activities to go unpunished.28 

The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) of Bangladesh, a region of unique topography and cultural  diversity, has been the subject of extensive development efforts for decades. The government of  the time implemented growth-based development projects and economic development  interventions in the Chittagong Hill Tracts starting in the 1950s.The goal of these initiatives, which  are frequently led by the government and different international organizations, is to enhance the  socioeconomic circumstances of the indigenous populations in the area. The course of this development is complicated and frequently controversial.29 Development projects in the  Chittagong Hill Tracts take land from Indigenous people who rely on shifting cultivation (jum). 

Powerful groups often grab land illegally with local government support. This forces Indigenous  families to leave their homes and lose their traditional livelihoods. Tourism development thus  threatens their survival and culture.30 . Like other infrastructure projects, the development of tourist  destinations frequently follows a pattern that exacerbates environmental degradation. Large-scale  development is frequently required to create level ground for the construction of hotels, resorts,  and rest houses, especially in well-known locations like Sajek Valley. One of the main concerns is  the direct destruction of habitat. These developments usually disregard the area’s natural  topography and ecological sensitivity due to improper zoning and environmental regulations,  which increase soil erosion and raise the risk of landslides.31 there has been debate over the growth  of tourism and other business endeavors. Critics contend that the construction of eco-parks and  resorts puts the interests of wealthy actors ahead of the rights and means of subsistence of local  communities, and that this has resulted in land grabbing and the forced relocation of indigenous  families from their ancestral lands.32 The extensive hill cutting and road construction for these  projects have also contributed to landslides and the degradation of biodiversity.33 

Environmental and Social Consequences: 

Increasing the frequency and intensity of landslides is the most immediate and devastating effect  of hill cutting and unauthorize development. Hills lose stability when their vegetation is removed, and the soil is loosened. Homes, roads, and people are buried when the soil becomes saturated and  collapses during intense monsoon rains.34 Numerous local species, including native plants and  wildlife, lose their homes and run the risk of going extinct because of habitat fragmentation and  destruction.35 Because of it communities lose their traditional way of life and cultural identity  because of the widespread land grabs and hill cutting that drives them from their ancestral lands.36 

According to a local news source, a large portion of the trash, including plastic bottles and  wrappers, is dumped into rivers and streams, causing extensive contamination.37 Important water  bodies like Kaptai Lake, the biggest artificial lake in Southeast Asia, are especially harmed by this  practice. Along with being a major tourist destination, this lake serves as a vital source of drinking  water for a sizeable section of the local population and is a vital component of the fisheries in the  area.38 The lake’s water quality is directly impacted by pollution, rendering it unfits for human  consumption if left untreated and negatively impacting its biodiversity.39 The root of the problem  lies in the insufficient waste management infrastructure in tourist-heavy areas.40 

Recommendations:  

The Doctrine of Public Trust: A Model from India 

The public trust doctrine is that the government holds natural resources such as mountains, rivers  and forests in trust for its citizens. Despite being not often the rightful owner of those resources,  the state is mandated by law to guard against the exploitation of those resources. 

This doctrine has been widely applied by the Indian Supreme Court to safeguard the environment.  In the famous case of M.C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath (1996), the court ruled that the state should act  as a trustee of natural resources and stopped a private company from constructing a motel on a  riverbed.41 The T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad v. Union of India (1996) case expanded on this  idea by establishing a judicial supervisory role over all of India’s forests, irrespective of their  official classification.42 To formally codify the concept of public trust for the natural resources of  the CHT, a new law should be passed. All governmental and private organizations would be held  legally responsible for any environmental deterioration under this law. Judicial Advocacy: The judiciary has the authority to serve as a “public trustee.” Like what the  Indian Supreme Court has done, courts can directly intervene to stop environmentally damaging  projects by accepting PIL petitions. 

The Writ of Kalikasan: A Model from the Philippines 

In the Philippines, citizens have a strong and quick way to seek judicial protection against  significant environmental harm through the Writ of Kalikasan (Writ of Nature). It enables anyone  to submit a petition on behalf of others to defend the right to a healthy environment, even if they  have no direct personal interest in the matter.43 

The Indigenous Cultural Communities of Brooke’s Point v. DENR and Ipilan Nickel Corporation  (2023) was a successful case utilizing this legal tool. A mining operation that was seriously  damaging the environment and endangering their ancestral domain had to be immediately shut  down after indigenous communities successfully obtained a permanent writ.44 The writ is effective  because it is swift and acknowledges everyone’s right to a healthy environment. 

The Bangladeshi legal system may be modified with a view to the Philippine’s model to provide  the CHT with a unique “Writ of Prakriti” (Writ of Nature). Communities could use this specialized  tool to combat unauthorized development, illegal logging, and hill cutting. Reduce Procedural Barriers: The new legal framework should make it easier for community  leaders or non-governmental organizations to file a writ of this kind on behalf of impacted  indigenous groups. 

Sustainable Development and Benefit Sharing 

The Taniwha doctrine, which alludes to the Māori mythological spiritual guardians of natural  resources, is recognized in New Zealand by the Resource Management Act 1991. Although it isn’t  a precise legal term, it refers to the legal requirement that local Māori communities and developers  consult with them and take their cultural values into account when planning a project.45 As a result,  developers are now required to negotiate benefit-sharing agreements and participate in thorough  consultation processes with Māori groups whose lands or resources are impacted. This guarantees  that development is socially and culturally responsible in addition to being advantageous  economically. 

A legislative framework should be put in place to require that a certain proportion of all profits  from major development projects (such as infrastructure, logging, or tourism) go to a local  government agency like the Hill District Councils or a community trust. These monies would go  toward healthcare, education, and community development initiatives. 

Conclusion: 

The focus of this paper, therefore, was to evaluate the degree of effectiveness of the existing  environmental and land-use laws in Bangladesh towards preventing hill cutting as well as  conserving the specialized biodiversity of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) areas. Although  Bangladesh has a notably sound legal framework, the laws are weak, fragmented, and often subject  to political influence and corruption. We also found out that hill cutting has serious environmental  consequences. The ecological equilibrium of the CHT has been seriously disturbed by devastating  soil erosion, widespread landslides, and denudation of the forests. The social and cultural effects  are just as grim. Land grabs, the expansion of tourism projects and other infrastructure, affect  indigenous peoples who rely on the land for their livelihoods, cultural traditions and spiritual  practices far more than any other group of people. What started with the Kaptai Dam construction  in the 1960s has turned into a constant and ongoing displacement, through eco-parks and resorts  and then illegal settlements. 

Therefore, this paper is a timely call for a paradigm shift in environmental governance of  Bangladesh. This makes it more than an abstract criticism of the status quo and allows concrete  and actionable recommendations that draw on comparative legal analysis. The study compares  ours with successes from other countries such as India, the Philippines, and New Zealand, and  draws critical lessons. Moreover, this paper adds an integrated view to the debate on sustainable  development in the CHT by stressing the role of a consistent legal framework and governance, and  the formal recognition of indigenous rights as requisite elements of equality and sustainability. It  is a simple truth that without social justice there is no environmental protection. Although the  journey towards a sustainable and fair CHT is a long and hard one to travel, this research has been  an important first step along the way by pointing out the direction that policymakers, legal  practitioners and local leaders can start to take if they wish to protect this land-based and  community land tenure based natural and cultural heritage for the next generation and more.

Bibliography 

Journal Articles and Conference Papers 

1. Alam E, ‘Locational Analysis of Hill Cutting Areas in Chittagong City, Bangladesh’ (2017)  8(11) Journal of Earth Science & Climatic Change 420. 
2. Jashimuddin M and Inoue M, ‘Management of Village Common Forests in the Chittagong  Hill Tracts of Bangladesh: Historical Background and Current Issues in Terms of  Sustainability’ (2012) 2(3) Open Journal of Forestry 121–137 
3. Barua R and others, ‘Hill Cutting and Landslide Vulnerability: An Environmental Impact  Assessment Approach on Bandarban Town, Bangladesh’ (2019) 9(1&2) Chittagong  University Journal of Biological Sciences 99. 
4. Rahman M and others, ‘Carbon Consequences of Deforestation in Khagrachhari of  Chittagong Hill Tracts: A GIS and Remote Sensing Approach’ (Conference Paper, 7th  International Conference on Civil Engineering for Sustainable Development, Khulna  University of Engineering and Technology, 7–9 February 2024). 
5. Ahmed S and others, ‘Developing Inclusive Tourism in Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT): A  Case Study on Sajek Valley, Bangladesh’ (2023) 12(2) Asian Review of Social Sciences 1. 
6. Alam E and others, ‘Aspects of Socio-Environmental Problems Resulting from Hill  Cutting in Chittagong City of Bangladesh: Local People’s Perspectives’ (2005) 3(8) Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences 1048. 
7. Sarkar OT and Mukul SA, ‘Challenges and Institutional Barriers to Forest and Landscape  Restoration in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh’ (2024) 13 Land 558 8. Rahman MM, ‘Can Ordinary People Seek Environmental Justice in Bangladesh?  Analyzing through the Lens of Legal, Policy, and Institutional Framework’ (2021) 29(2)  Bangladesh Journal of Public 
8. Hilario G Davide Jr, ‘The Environment as Life Sources and the Writ of Kalikasan in the  Philippines’ (2012) 29 Pace Environmental Law Review 592. 
9. Jenny Vince, ‘Māori Consultation under the Resource Management Act and the 2005  Amendments’ (2006) 10 New Zealand Journal of Environmental Law 295.

Institutional Reports 

1. Barkat A and others, Socio-Economic Baseline Survey of Chittagong Hill Tracts (UNDP  Dhaka, April 2009) https://www.hdrc-bd.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/6.-Socio economic-Baseline-Survey-of-Chittagong-Hill-Tracts.pdf 
2. Moula MN, Governance Challenges of the Department of Environment and Way Forward (Transparency International Bangladesh, January 2022) https://www.ti bangladesh.org/images/2021/report/DoE_ES_English.pdf 
3. Local Government Engineering Department (LGED), Rural Connectivity in Hill Area – Part III (LGED, June 2023)  https://oldweb.lged.gov.bd/UploadedDocument/ProjectLibraryGallery/1795/Rural%20Co nnectivity%20in%20Hill%20Area_Part%20III.pdf 
4. Asian Development Bank, Chattogram Hill Tracts Inclusive and Resilient Urban Water  Supply and Sanitation Project (ADB Project No. 51296-002) https://www.adb.org/projects/51296-002/main 
5. International Land Coalition, ‘Indigenous Youth Resist Land Grabbing in Bangladesh’  (International Land Coalition, n.d.) https://www.landcoalition.org/en/latest/indigenous youth-at-the-forefront-of-land-grabbing/ 

III. Newspapers and Online Articles 

1. Islam S, ‘Vanishing CHT Forests: Some Management Suggestions’ The Daily Star (20  February 2010) https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-127027 
2. Anjuman A, ‘CHT Deforestation Must Be Stopped’ The Daily Observer (29 May 2025)  https://www.observerbd.com/news/527676 
3. Akil NZ, ‘Forest Management in Bangladesh: Loopholes and Inadequacies’ The Daily  Observer (28 July 2021) https://www.observerbd.com/news.php?id=323669 
4. Howlader A, ‘How Our Laws Fail Our Forests’ Dhaka Tribune (9 February 2022)  https://www.dhakatribune.com/opinion/op-ed/286984/how-our-laws-fail-our-forests 
5. Chakma MK, ‘The Twisted “Facts” of CHT Accord Implementation’ The Daily Star (28  April 2024) https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/views/news/the-twisted-facts-cht accord-implementation-3596581 
6. Roy M, ‘Biodiversity Threatened by Hill Agriculture’ Prothom Alo (23 May 2025)  https://en.prothomalo.com/environment/zzvd7xqgf1 
7. ‘Cutting of Hills: Lack of Law or Lack of Law Enforcement’ The Daily Star (7 July 2007)  https://legalcounselbd.com/cutting-of-hills-lack-of-law-or-lack-of-law/
8. Rosy SY, ‘The Growth of Tourism and “Development” in an Indigenous Setting: Exploring  a Case of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh’ (2024)  https://www.researchgate.net/publication/378166439_The_Growth_of_Tourism_and_’De velopment’_in_an_Indigenous_Setting_Exploring_a_Case_of_the_Chittagong_Hill_Tract s_Bangladesh 
9. Sohel YR, ‘পার্ বত্য চট্টগ্রাম অঞ্চলের সংস্কৃতত্, ইতত্হাস ও ঐতত্লহযর প্রেতিলত্ পর্ বটলের আচরণ’ Pahar24 (3 August 2025) https://pahar24.com/… 
10. Elahi F, ‘োপ্তাই হ্রদ দখলে দষূ লণ তর্র্ণ ব’ Suprobhat Bangladesh (17 July 2025)  https://suprobhat.com/… 
11. Chakma SP, ‘র্ল্বয আক্রান্ত হ্রলদর আত্বনাদ’ Jagonews24 (21 March 2017)  https://www.jagonews24.com/special-reports/news/236503 accessed 13 November 2025. 
12. Hyali M, ‘Road Construction Impact on the Environment’  https://www.scribd.com/document/78419503/Road-Construction-Impact-on-the Environment 

Laws and Cases 

Bangladesh Legislation: 

• Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act 1995 
• Forest Act 1927 
• Chittagong Hill Tracts Regulation 1900 
• Wildlife (Conservation and Security) Act 2012 
• Environmental Court Act 2010 
• Biodiversity Act 2017 
• Building Construction Act 1952 

Foreign and International  

• United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) • Resource Management Act 1991 (New Zealand) 
• Republic Act No. 9147 (Philippines)  

Foreign Cases: 

• AIR 1996 SC 711 (India). 
• AIR 1997 SC 1228 (India). 
• G.R. No. 268140 (Philippines).

Institutional and NGO Reports / Press Releases 

1. Transparency International Bangladesh, ‘Corruption Institutionalized at the Department of  Environment as Lackluster Law Enforcement and Illegal Dealings Sidestep All  Accountability Mechanisms’ (7 January 2022) https://www.ti bangladesh.org/articles/story/6463 
2. Transparency International Bangladesh, ‘Corruption in the Tripartite Nexus Accounts for  23–40% of Total Expenditures’ (9 October 2024) https://www.ti bangladesh.org/articles/press-release/7098 
3. Kaunain Rahman, ‘Bangladesh: Overview of Corruption and Anti-Corruption’ (U4 Anti Corruption Resource Centre, Chr. Michelsen Institute, 15 August 2021)  https://www.u4.no/publications/bangladesh-overview-of-corruption-and-anti-corruption 
4. Amnesty International, ‘Bangladesh: Indigenous Peoples Engulfed in Chittagong Hill  Tracts Land Conflict’ (Press Release, 12 June 2013)  https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/press-release/2013/06/bangladesh-indigenous-peoples engulfed-chittagong-hill-tracts-land-conflict/

1 Edris Alam, ‘Locational Analysis of Hill Cutting Areas in Chittagong city, Bangladesh’ (2017) 8(11) Journal of  Earth Science & Climatic Change 420. 

2 Mohammed Jashimuddin and Makoto Inoue, ‘Management of Village Common Forests in the Chittagong Hill  Tracts of Bangladesh: Historical Background and Current Issues in Terms of Sustainability’ (July 2012) Open  Journal of Forestry 2(3) 121–137 

3 Saiful Islam, ‘Vanishing CHT forests: Some management suggestions’ The Daily Star (20 February 2010)  https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-127027 accessed 9 November 2025 

4 Alam (n1) 

5Islam (n3) 

6 Masrura Mamnun and Saddam Hossen, ‘Spatial alteration of fragmented landscape in evergreen and semievergreen  rainforest: A case study in Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh’ (2021) 5(1) Asian Journal of Forestry 17

7 Md Nadiruzzaman and others, ‘Deforestation, Development, and Emerging Environmental Risks in the Chittagong  Hill Tracts of Bangladesh’ (Preprint, Preprints.org, nd) doi:10.20944/preprints202503.0884.v1 accessed 10  November 2025 

8 Atifa Anjuman, ‘CHT deforestation must be stopped Daily Observer’ (29 May 2025)  https://www.observerbd.com/news/527676 accessed 10 November 2025

9 Md Newazul Moula, ‘Governance Challenges of the Department of Environment and Way Forward’(Transparency  International Bangladesh, January 2022) https://www.ti-bangladesh.org/images/2021/report/DoE_ES_English.pdf accessed 12 November 2025. 

10 Transparency International Bangladesh, ‘Corruption Institutionalized at the Department of Environment as  Lackluster Law Enforcement and Illegal Dealings Sidestep All Accountability Mechanisms’ (7 January 2022)  https://www.ti-bangladesh.org/articles/story/6463 accessed on 12 November 2025 

11 Md Mizanur Rahman, ‘Can Ordinary People Seek Environmental Justice in Bangladesh? Analyzing through the  Lens of Legal, Policy, and Institutional Framework’ (2021) 29(2) Bangladesh Journal of Public 12 Forest Act 1927, S 72 

13 Nadim Zawad Akil, ‘Forest Management in Bangladesh: Loopholes and Inadequacies’ The Daily Observer (28  July 2021) 

https://www.observerbd.com/news.php?id=323669#:~:text=One%20of%20the%20biggest%20loopholes,from%20th e%20British%20colonial%20perspective. accessed on 12 November 2025 

14 Aparna Howlader, ‘How Our Laws Fail Our Forests’ Dhaka Tribune (9 February 2022)  https://www.dhakatribune.com/opinion/op-ed/286984/how-our-laws-fail-our-forests accessed on 12 November 2025 15 Akil (n13) 

16 Building Construction Act 1952, S 3C 

17 Mahin Rahman and others, ‘Carbon Consequences of Deforestation in Khagrachhari of Chittagong Hill Tracts: A  GIS and Remote Sensing Approach’ (Conference Paper, 7th International Conference on Civil Engineering for  Sustainable Development, Khulna University of Engineering and Technology, Khulna, Bangladesh, 7–9 February  2024) 

18 ibid; International Land Coalition, ‘Indigenous youth resist land grabbing in Bangladesh’ (International Land  Coalition, n.d.) https://www.landcoalition.org/en/latest/indigenous-youth-at-the-forefront-of-land-grabbing/ accessed  13 November 2025.

19 Mangal Kumar Chakma, ‘The twisted ‘facts’ of CHT Accord implementation’ The Daily Star (28 April 2024)  https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/views/news/the-twisted-facts-cht-accord-implementation-3596581 accessed on  13 November 2025 

20 Oliver Tirtho Sarkar and Sarif A Mukul, ‘Challenges and Institutional Barriers to Forest and Landscape Restoration in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh’ (2024) 13 Land 558. 

21 Transparency International Bangladesh, ‘Corruption in the Tripartite Nexus Accounts for 23–40% of Total  Expenditures’ (9 October 2024) https://www.ti-bangladesh.org/articles/press-release/7098 accessed on 13 November  2025 

22 Kaunain Rahman, ‘Bangladesh: Overview of Corruption and Anti-Corruption ‘(U4 Anti-Corruption Resource  Centre, Chr. Michelsen Institute, 15 August 2021) https://www.u4.no/publications/bangladesh-overview-of corruption-and-anti-corruption accessed on 13 November 2025 

23 Islam (n3) 

24 Rony Barua and others, ‘Hill Cutting and Landslide Vulnerability: An Environmental Impact Assessment  Approach on Bandarban Town, Bangladesh’ (2019) 9(1&2) Chittagong University Journal of Biological Sciences 99–118 

25 A Barkat and others, Socio-Economic Baseline Survey of Chittagong Hill Tracts (UNDP Dhaka, April 2009)  https://www.hdrc-bd.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/6.-Socio-economic-Baseline-Survey-of-Chittagong-Hill Tracts.pdf accessed on 13 November 2025 

26 Local Government Engineering Department (LGED), Rural Connectivity in Hill Area – Part III (LGED June  2023)  

https://oldweb.lged.gov.bd/UploadedDocument/ProjectLibraryGallery/1795/Rural%20Connectivity%20in%20Hill% 20Area_Part%20III.pdf accessed on 13 November 2025 

27 Mrityunjoy Roy, ‘Biodiversity threatened by hill agriculture’ Prothom Alo (23 May 2025)  https://en.prothomalo.com/environment/zzvd7xqgf1 accessed on 13 November 2025

28 Cutting of hills: Lack of law or lack of law enforcement (2007) The Daily Star (7 July)  https://legalcounselbd.com/cutting-of-hills-lack-of-law-or-lack-of-law/ accessed on 13 November 2025 

29 Sabiha Yeasmin Rosy, ‘The Growth of Tourism and ‘Development’ in an Indigenous Setting: Exploring a Case of  the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh’ (2024) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/378166439_The_Growth_of_Tourism_and_’Development’_in_an_Indigen ous_Setting_Exploring_a_Case_of_the_Chittagong_Hill_Tracts_Bangladesh accessed on 13 November 2025

30 ibid 

31 Saifuddin Ahmed and others, ‘Developing Inclusive Tourism in Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT): A Case Study on  Sajek Valley, Bangladesh’ (August 2023) 12(2) Asian Review of Social Sciences 1–9, 

32 Md Edris Alam and others, ‘Aspects of Socio-Environmental Problems Resulting from Hill Cutting in Chittagong  City of Bangladesh: Local People’s Perspectives’ (2005) 3(8) Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences 1048–1052.

33 Mustafa Hyali, Road Construction Impact on the Environment https://www.scribd.com/document/78419503/Road-Construction-Impact-on-the-Environment accessed on 13  November 2025

34 Islam M S, ‘Effect, Causes, and Possible Measure of Landslide in Bangladesh (Chittagong)’ (2019) 3(4)  Engineering Science (Science Publishing Group). 

35 Saiful Islam, ‘Vanishing CHT forests: Some management suggestions’ The Daily Star (20 February 2010)  https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-127027 accessed on 13 November 2025 

36 Amnesty International, ‘Bangladesh: Indigenous Peoples engulfed in Chittagong Hill Tracts land conflict’ (Press  Release, 12 June 2013) https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/press-release/2013/06/bangladesh-indigenous-peoples engulfed-chittagong-hill-tracts-land-conflict/ accessed on 13 November 2025 

37 Yasin Rana Sohel, ‘পার্ বত্য চট্টগ্রাম অঞ্চলের সংস্কৃতত্, ইতত্হাস ও ঐতত্লহযর প্রেতিলত্ পর্ বটলের আচরণ’ Pahar24 (3 August 2025)  

https://pahar24.com/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A4%E 0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF- 

%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6% BE%E0%A6%AE-%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%9E%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%B2/

38 Fozle Elahi, ‘োপ্তাই হ্রদ দখলে দষূ লণ তর্র্ণ ব’ Suprobhat Bangladesh (17 July 2025)  

https://suprobhat.com/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE% E0%A6%87-%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A6- 

%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87- 

%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A3/ accessed 13 November 2025

39 Sushil Prasad Chakma, ‘র্ল্বয আক্রান্ত হ্রলদর আত্বনাদ’ Jagonews24 (21 March 2017)  https://www.jagonews24.com/special-reports/news/236503 accessed 13 November 2025

40 Asian Development Bank, Chattogram Hill Tracts Inclusive and Resilient Urban Water Supply and Sanitation  Project (ADB Project No. 51296-002) https://www.adb.org/projects/51296-002/main

41 AIRONLINE 1996 SC 711 

42 AIR 1997 SC 1228 

43 Hilario G. Davide Jr, ‘The Environment as Life Sources and the Writ of Kalikasan in the Philippines’ (2012) 29  Pace Envtl. L. Rev. 592  

44 G.R. No. 268140

45 Jenny Vince, ‘Māori consultation under the Resource Management Act and the 2005 Amendments’ (2006) 10  NZJEL 295