Authored By: Netti Venkata Darshika
Damodaram Sanjivayya National Law University
Abstract
A failed state is a nation that has lost its ability to protect its citizens from violence and instability and fulfil the basic needs. The term “Failed State” gained prominence after the collapse of Somalia in 1991.
This project will help us to understand the failed state theory-its causes, consequences and solutions citing the example of Afghanistan. It showcases the history of Afghanistan from the ancient times of Gandhar in Mahabharat, various dynasties like Durrani and Barakzai ruling the country, its independence from the British following the third Anglo-Afghan war , Soviet invasion to USA intervention and the rise of Taliban. This project will help us to know about various rulers in Afghanistan and how the judiciary, administration worked during that period. It also highlights the treatment of women and minorities. This project will also tell us how Afghanistan became a failed state by comparative study under various rulers and highlights the aftermath of war including human rights violations, abuse against women and minorities. This project will help us to understand the history and politics of Afghanistan from ancient times to the current period.
The Afghanistan society faces repeated wars and carries generational trauma, displacement and instability. This project provides various solutions for its recovery like proper governance, independent judiciary and women empowerment.
Introduction
Afghanistan is considered to be one of the weakest states in modern geopolitics. The term failed state is a concise way of describing the long-term failure of Afghanistan to maintain a stable government, provide sufficient security to its citizens, or have sovereign control over its land. The decades of internal politics, tribal hostilities, and foreign interventions have all weakened the institutions of the state, making the country vulnerable to the recurring conflicts and the breakdown of the government.
The severity of the malaise in Afghanistan intensified in the 1970s, when a series of coups shook the monarchy and led to the Soviet invasion in 1979 followed by its withdrawal in 1989 and the rise of Taliban. Hence Afghanistan faces repeated wars and instability.
The history of Afghanistan is the story of a long history of instability, which was created over decades of political instability, foreign intervention, and internal rivalry, which caused a massive destruction of infrastructures, social disintegration, and the entrapment of civilians in the violence, which highlights the extreme weakness of the Afghan institutions.
The Taliban government came at a high social price, especially to women and minority groups. The U.S.-led intervention in 2001 toppled the Taliban, which established the basis of 20 years of nation-building to turn Afghanistan into a democratic polity.
The tragic downfall of the Afghan government in August 2021 is an example of the combination of historical and structural weaknesses. Modern literature and declassified dossier facts help to understand how the failures of the long-term policy and the inefficiency of the managerial system have led to the present situation in Afghanistan as a failed state. Today, Afghanistan is facing humanitarian disasters, economic instability, and governance issues, which are the result of the complicated combination of the past and the current structural weaknesses that have characterized its contemporary period.
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework.
In theory, this model explains the interaction of the factors mentioned above. State fragility is enhanced by weak institutions and conflicting legal systems, which consequently lead to instability and bad governance. The framework provides a solid basis of analysis and a methodological approach to the study of the governance issues in Afghanistan by combining theoretical knowledge with conceptual mapping.
Flowchart:
Weak Institutions and Legal Pluralism.
⬇️
State Fragility
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Weak Government and Instability
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Possible Reforms
The diagram shows the role of weak institutions and overlapping legal systems in the instability of Afghanistan, thus highlighting the need to implement reforms.
History of Afghanistan
Mahabharat Period (3100 BCE-900 BCE)
The earliest societies in Afghanistan were tribal clans that were ruled by elders according to the traditional oral laws. Women were mostly involved in household duties, but elite women were able to influence clan decisions. Minorities were included but had little power. In Mahabharata smaller clans were tributary to larger tribes, and this shows early social stratifications and conflicts.
Achaemenid Empire (550 BCE-330 BCE)
Although not officially empowered, elite women exercised power in courtly circles, thus providing a good example of gendered agency in antiquity. The minority groups were allowed to practice their own culture. The rule of Satrap Artabazos illustrates the fine art of balancing the collection of taxes and at the same time respecting the local customs- an example of provincial power bargaining with imperial centralism. The minority groups such as Zoroastrians, were allowed to practice their own religion which highlights the policy of tolerance during that period. The frequent uprisings in different provinces provided the Macedonian army of Alexander with tactical advantages, thus demonstrating how the weaknesses of governance can be exploited during the transition.
Maurya Empire (321 BCE-185 BCE)
The Mauryan period, which was under the care of Chandragupta and subsequently Ashoka, is the best example of the creation of a highly centralized state that was supported by a detailed codification of laws. The references to karnikas testify to the role of elite women in the inner chambers of the court, and the protection of minority groups is a relatively liberal stance. The spread of non-violence, welfare programs and wide religious tolerance by Ashoka is a testimony to the inclusionary ambitions of his rule. However, the ultimate weakness of the empire is associated with the succession wars and local rebellions, which is a common motif in the historiography of early Indo-Asian states. The Kandahar edict of Ashoka, which clearly indicates a promise to protect the local religious practices, is one of the main sources that prove the active inclusive rule in the Mauryan system. Although the rise of Buddhism led to a high level of sociopolitical unity, the ongoing conflicts with the traditional religious practices depict the policy complexities that are inherent in integrative imperial policies.
Indo‑Greek Kingdom (180 BCE‑10 CE)
The Indo-Greek syncretic polity is an example of a combination of Hellenistic administrative systems and local traditions, with a centralised hierarchy, but authorising provincial autonomy. History attests that elite women were involved in the courtly milieu. The eclectic character of the political culture is also emphasized by the tolerated position of the minority groups. The amalgamation of jurisprudential traditions is supported by legal provisions, which are based on the Greek law and are complemented by the local customs. The ultimate fall of the kingdom, which can be explained by the succession conflicts, foreign invasions, and uprisings, can be viewed as a powerful prism through which to evaluate the weakness of the state. The Milinda Panha records that King Menander I was a supporter of religious tolerance, which shows that he was a believer in both Buddhist and Hellenistic traditions. However, frequent succession wars later disintegrated the power that he had created. The conversation between Menander and Buddhist monks, which is preserved in the Milinda Panha, is an example of a state-sponsored atmosphere in which religious discussion could take place, a striking characteristic of the Indo-Greek period.
Kushan Empire (30 CE‑375 CE)
The Kushan government, which is manifested by provincial governors implementing imperial orders, is a centralized government. The power of elite women over court decisions is testified by historical evidence. The legal system combined imperial laws with local laws, which gives a comprehensive perspective of the empire’s construction. The following fall coincides with the succession conflicts, external forces of the Xiongnu, and internal uprisings, which all support the theory that weak succession systems trigger the fall of the empire. The encouragement of Buddhism and the invocation of trade under Kanishka the Great is shown on coinage with both Greek and Indian gods, thus indicating a physical fusion of religious and economic culture. The symbolism of the inscriptions on Kushan coinage is inclusive, but also suggests the instability of the northern rebellions that weakened the central power of the empire.
Ghaznavid Empire (977 CE‑1186 CE)
The Ghaznavid polity is an example of a centralized military monarchy. According to sources, the role of women was mainly domestic, and minorities were tolerated but taxed, which proves a practical attitude to the extraction of resources. The combination of Islamic law and traditional administration in the institution gives an idea of the legal system that informed civic life. The fall of the empire is linked to the invasion of Mongols and the crisis of succession, which resonates with the traditional findings in the literature on the area. The administrative reforms and support of scholars by Mahmud of Ghazni demonstrate an enlightened view of the administration, but the exhausting impact of the constant military campaigns on the national resources cannot be overestimated.
Ghurid Empire (1148 CE‑1215 CE)
Women, as per modern tables, were mostly confined and minorities were only granted a guarded tolerance. The legal system, which is represented by the Islamic law with regional modifications, is one of the main sources of scholars who are interested in the development of governance. The empire collapsed because of the successive succession wars and foreign Mongol invasions-a situation that has been widely addressed in the historiographical studies. Inscriptions of this era depict a complicated relationship between perceived tolerance and the fact of uprisings, thus pointing to the circumstances in which a polity can maintain control.
Timurid Empire (1370 CE‑1507 CE)
The centralization of power, self-glorifying military conquest and an unrivaled commitment to cultural patronage are all strongly linked to Timurid rule. The multisource governance model is represented by the law system that refers to the Islamic principles and combines them with the local customs. The architectural innovations of Samarkand are a victory of imperial ambition, but there is an unanswered question about the continuation of provincial uprisings.
Durrani Empire (1747 CE‑1826 CE)
The centralization plan of the Durrani monarchy involved the creation of tribal alliances. According to scholarly sources, women and the political influence of the minority tribes were limited in terms of their role and political power in tribute arrangements. This paradigm, combined with the convergence of Islamic and tribal law, is an example of next-stage centralization. The decline of empire governance was triggered by succession conflicts, tribal revolts, and foreign invasions, a theory that is supported by an increasing amount of evidence. The unification policy and trade facilitation by Ahmad Shah Durrani and the later posthumous conflicts are a classic example of a weak government that has been a main topic of republic literature. The independence of minority tribes and their consequent rebellions in Kandahar give a vivid example of the vulnerability that permeates the distribution of loyalty.
Barakzai Dynasty (1826 CE‑1973 CE)
The centralization ideology supported by a viable bureaucratic apparatus characterizes the Barakzai monarchy. The historical sources always show the predominantly domestic role of women. The minority peoples are kept in a relatively restricted political position, sometimes even being subjected to a seemingly legal system that resembles the Islamic law institutionalized through administrative codes. The subsequent breakdown, which was caused by coups, foreign intervention, and poor sitter-rule, is a case of a similar situation being replicated in other parts of the world. The military and bureaucratic approach of Abdur Rahman Khan helped to stabilize the situation, but the cruelty of the policies was converted into the bitterness of the minorities, which is a well-known fact among policy analysts.
Democratic Republic Backed by Soviet Union
The Soviet-supported rule is a very centralized communist system, which is rectified through a two-fold strategy of the social sciences. The theoretical promise of equality is seen in women’s access to education and labor markets and the acknowledgment of ethnic minorities, but the practical implementation was unclear. The political arena was controlled by a Soviet-style code. The collapse was followed by the later civil war, insurgency and Soviet withdrawal, a phenomenon that still offers new insights in the area of conflict resolution.
Specific literacy and women involvement policies could have increased cultural education levels, but the mujahideen resistance undermined the general stability, resulting in prolonged instability. The list of schools of girls, their growing number, and the opposition of the countryside give a deep understanding of the conflict between modernization and tradition.
Taliban Regimes 1996‑2001 and 2021‑2025 CE
Taliban brought into existence an extremely centralized theocratic order. The oppression of women and the persecution of minorities are widely recorded, which validates qualitative data that are consistent with general expectations. The legal system is a rigid Sharia system that is not questioned. The first period of collapse was caused by international intervention, and the failures of the next era were caused by internal inefficiencies, an unanticipated but clearly drawn causal relationship. The Taliban restrictive measures on education, women and minorities caused resistance and diplomatic isolation, thus leading to structural failure. The expulsion of the schooling of girls caused civil unrest and NGO intervention, which was a major illustration of policy-induced turbulence.
Hence Afghanistan eventually became a failed-state due to instability caused in the region.
Conclusion
The outcome of this research reveals recurring patterns in Afghanistan’s governance, legal framework and treatment of women and minorities throughout its history highlighting various structural and social factors contributing to its instability which made Afghanistan a failed state.
The development of Afghanistan since the Mahabharata-era, tribal structures to the Taliban governments of 2025, shows a common trend of weak governance, lack of strong legal institutions, and social stratification. In both polities, the central power is characterized by a consistent tendency to be weakened by the succession struggles, local uprisings, or external aggression. The agency of women and minority groups varied significantly, and some regimes provided some relative tolerance, and others maintained repressive policies. Laws naturally incorporated local traditions with general imperial or religious decrees, frequently but not always to be enforced-so that they must be carefully scrutinized in modern study.
This is especially noticeable in the Achaemenid and Kushan regimes. On the other hand, a dependence on militaristic may or doctrinal orthodoxy, as witnessed during the Taliban period, was constantly met with internal opposition and ultimately disintegrated. Furthermore, the economic realm, administrative policies, and socioeconomic reforms became the key factors; empires that invested heavily in infrastructure, trade, and education, like the Mauryan sphere of Ashoka, lasted longer than those that did not care about social well-being.
Suggestion
Regimes that allowed women and minorities some social or political space like Ashoka’s Maurya Empire or the Kushan Empire, experienced less social unrest compared to regimes enforcing strict exclusionary policies. Hence women and minorities must be allowed to study, work and practice their own religion respectively.
There must be a strong governance and legal system without any corruption.
The central power should not be weakened by the succession struggles, local uprisings, or external aggression.
The government must invest in infrastructure, trade, education and provide employment opportunities to its citizens both men and women for the growth of the economy.
The people who are displaced due to constant war must be given a place to live for survival.
Bibliography
Amnesty International, The Taliban and Women’s Human Rights in Afghanistan, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13642987.2024.2369584.
Thomas Barfield, Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History 18-22 (Princeton Univ. Press 2010).
BBC News, Fall of Kabul (2021), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-58134806.
Council on Foreign Relations, Instability in Afghanistan, Global Conflict Tracker, https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/war-afghanistan.
Council on Foreign Relations, The Taliban in Afghanistan, https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/taliban-afghanistan.
Council on Foreign Relations, Timeline: The U.S. War in Afghanistan, https://www.cfr.org/timeline/us-war-afghanistan.
Larry P. Goodson, Afghanistan’s Endless War: State Failure, Regional Politics, and the Rise of the Taliban (Univ. Wash. Press 2001).
Human Rights Watch, Afghanistan: Economic Roots of the Humanitarian Crisis, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/01/afghanistan-economic-roots-humanitarian-crisis.
Imperial War Museums, Afghanistan War: How Did 9/11 Lead to a 20-Year War?, https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/afghanistan-war-how-did-911-lead-to-a-20-year-war.
Douglass C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance 3-7 (Cambridge Univ. Press 1990).
Nat’l Sec. Archive, Afghanistan: Declassified Documents on Policy and Governance, https://nsarchive.gwu.edu.
Robert I. Rotberg, State Failure and State Weakness in a Time of Terror 1-15 (World Peace Foundation 2003).
The Role of Women in the Mahabharata, Augusta Heights School, https://augustahts.org/uploads/3/4/6/0/34604305/paipart2-dec.pdf.
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Appendix Prescribed- Questionnaires
The following questionnaire is included to demonstrate the possible structure of an empirical study and no interview or survey was taken.
1.Age:
2.Gender:
3.Educational Qualification:
A.12th passed
B.Graduate
C.Post-Graduate
4.Which historical period of Afghanistan do you think showed the highest level of inclusion for women and minorities ?
A.Maurya Empire
B.Kushan Empire
C.Democratic Republic (Soviet Era)
D.Taliban Regime
5. In your opinion, what was the main reason behind repeated empire collapses ?
A.Weak succession system
B.Poor governance
C.Tribal conflicts
D.External pressures
6.Suggest ways to reduce instability in Afghanistan ?
Workshop Attended:
The knowledge acquired in this session was used to develop the research question and the arguments in this paper.
This study explores the problem of gender-bias in more detail in South-Asia that includes Afghanistan.
