Authored By: Sakshi Singh
Amity Law School Noida
Abstract
In the last decade, India has witnessed an unprecedented surge in digital activity online banking, social media use, e-commerce, and virtual education have become everyday norms. However, this digital expansion has come at a cost. Cybercrime in India has grown alarmingly, affecting individuals, businesses, and government systems a like . From phishing scams that rob unsuspecting citizens of their savings, to large-scale ransomware attacks major corporations, cyber threats have taken a serious toll on the nation’s safety and trust in digital platforms.
This research aims to provide a grounded, realistic view of the current state of cybercrime in India. It explores both the nature and growth of cybercrimes such as hacking, data breaches, identity theft, cyberstalking, and financial fraud and critically analyses the legal framework designed to combat them. The study focuses on India’s key laws, primarily the Information Technology Act, 2000 and relevant provisions of the Indian Penal Code, and assesses whether they are capable of handling 21st-century digital threats.
Law enforcement faces its own set of challenges. Cyber police cells in many Indian states lack trained personnel, modern digital tools, and even basic infrastructure. Officers often struggle with identifying and preserving digital evidence, which weakens the prosecution’s case in court. To make matters worse, many victims, especially women, choose not to report incidents like cyberbullying or online sexual harassment due to fear, shame, or lack of awareness.
This paper also considers the role of the judiciary through key cases such as Shreya Singhal v. Union of India, which struck down the controversial Section 66A of the IT Act for curbing free speech, and Avnish Bajaj v. State, which addressed intermediary liability. These rulings reflect a slow but evolving judicial understanding of cyber issues.
Keywords- Cyberspace, Crime against Women and Children, Data Protection,
Introduction
Over the past decade, India has undergone a remarkable digital transformation. With widespread use of smartphones, internet penetration in rural and urban areas, and ambitious government campaigns like Digital India, citizens today are more connected than ever before. From making online payments to accessing government services, the digital sphere has become a crucial part of everyday life. But alongside these benefits lies a growing threat cybercrime. As more Indians go online, the chances of falling victim to cyberattacks have multiplied, and unfortunately, our laws and law enforcement are struggling to keep up with this fast-moving danger.1
Cybercrimes in India are no longer limited to tech-savvy hackers in dark rooms. They involve a wide range of offences: identity thefts, phishing scams, ransomware attacks, online sexual harassment, and even cyberterrorism. According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), cybercrime cases have seen a sharp year-on-year rise, with over 65,000 cases reported in 2023 alone a number that likely represents just the tip of the iceberg due to underreporting and lack of awareness.
What makes cybercrime particularly dangerous is that it is borderless, faceless, and rapidly evolving. One can be sitting in Delhi and be defrauded by someone operating anonymously from another continent. Unfortunately, India’s legal framework mainly governed by the Information Technology Act, 2000 and selected provisions from the Indian Penal Code, 1860 is not always equipped to address the complexities of modern digital offences.
Further compounding the issue are serious enforcement challenges. Police stations in many regions still lack dedicated cyber cells, and officers are often not trained in digital forensics. Victims frequently encounter delays, and even when a case is filed, it may take years to reach a conclusion in court. Meanwhile, offenders continue exploiting legal loopholes and jurisdictional grey areas with ease.
This paper aims to unpack the rise of cybercrime in India, analyze the gaps in the legal framework, and assess the challenges faced by enforcement agencies. By exploring real cases, relevant laws, and global best practices, the goal is to suggest actionable reforms that can make India’s cyberspace more secure for all.2
LITERATURE REVIEW
The growing cyberthreats in India and the necessary defenses against them have been the subject of numerous studies by academics and researchers. Kshatriya (2019) examined India’s quick digital adoption. Payment systems and discovered that whereas digital transactions improve financial inclusion, they can lead to cybersecurity concerns. The study demonstrated how cybercriminals perpetrate financial fraud by taking advantage of lax authentication procedures and vulnerabilities in digital infrastructure3. The function of artificial intelligence (AI) in preventing cybercrime was covered by Bansal & Arora (2021). Their study looked at how AI-powered security systems can automate threat responses, anticipate cyberattacks, and identify anomalous network activity. They determined that while AI-driven cybersecurity solutions greatly enhance threat detection capabilities, ongoing development is necessary to combat changing cyberthreats.
An extensive investigation into India’s cyber laws and how well they work to combat cybercrimes was carried out by Sharma etc. in 2022 4. Their conclusions revealed that although the Information Technology Act of 2000 establishes a legal framework, law enforcement authorities’ lack of awareness and insufficient resources make it difficult to implement cyber laws. To discourage cybercriminals, the report suggested enacting stricter punishments and more robust regulatory frameworks5. The psychological effects of cybercrimes on victims were the main topic of Gupta & Malhotra (2023). According to their research, identity theft and other cybercrimes. Financial fraud, online harassment, and theft cause a great deal of emotional pain and erode public confidence in digital networks 6. In order to assist victims in overcoming the repercussions of cybercrimes, they recommended the necessity of psychological therapy services and awareness programs. Verma (2023) investigated the suitability of international cyber security best practices for India. His study recommended that India follow the best cyber-secure countries, including the United States, by implementing a multi-layered cybersecurity strategy 7. Estonia and the United States. In order to create a robust cyber ecosystem, he underlined the significance of rigorous data protection regulations, cyber education initiatives, and public-private partnerships. Together, these studies show that cyberthreats in India are complex and call for a mix of technological, regulatory, and awareness-raising measures to lessen their effects. India has made great strides to fortify its cyber security system, but ongoing work is required to keep up with new threats.
OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH
This study will lead to a better understanding of the legal framework for cybercrime in India. Some legal, regulatory and procedural issues in prosecuting or defending against criminal acts will be examined.
∙ Assess the adequacy of existing cybersecurity architecture and policies. ∙ Critically analyze the trends and patterns of cybercrime in India.
∙ Assess the legal framework against cybercrime in India.
∙ Provide recommendations to reduce cybercrime
Background
India’s rapid digital transformation has brought it to the forefront of global innovation in information technology and digital services. However, with this advancement comes a parallel rise in cyber threats, including identity theft, ransomware attacks, financial fraud, and large-scale data breaches. As digital tools become increasingly embedded in everyday life from Unified Payments Interface (UPI) transactions to accessing e-governance services and online commerce the nation finds itself more exposed to cyber vulnerabilities8.
With over 800 million internet users, India now represents one of the largest and fastest-growing digital user bases in the world. This surge in connectivity has simultaneously made the country a prime target for cybercriminals who exploit digital systems through sophisticated methods such as phishing, sextortion, and ransomware. Critical sectors such as banking, healthcare, and education have faced attacks that not only compromise sensitive information but also threaten public safety9.
The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic further accelerated the shift to digital platforms. With more individuals working remotely and depending on personal networks, security protocols became more fragile, creating fertile ground for cybercrime. According to data from the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), more than 65,000 cybercrime cases were reported in India in 2023 a figure that likely underrepresents the actual scale of the problem due to underreporting, lack of awareness, and fear of reputational damage10.
Despite the alarming rise in cyber threats, India’s legal framework remains insufficiently equipped to handle the complexity and volume of such crimes. The Information Technology Act, 2000, remains the principal legislation governing cyber offences, but its provisions were crafted during a period when the nature and scope of cybercrime were far more limited. Today, emerging technologies like artificial intelligence, blockchain, cryptocurrency, and deepfake software introduce legal challenges that the IT Act was never designed to address. Furthermore, the absence of a robust and comprehensive data protection law leaves citizens’ personal data susceptible to misuse not just by malicious actors, but also by corporations operating without adequate oversigh11
Impact of Cyber Crime on Individuals and Society
Effects on Businesses: Cybercrime poses serious risks to e-commerce companies, which handle enormous client records in digital formats. Businesses must put strong security measures in place, such as encrypting financial data, to safeguard sensitive data12. If they don’t, hackers may be able to access client data without authorization by taking advantage of security flaws.
Effects on Infrastructure: Critical national infrastructures including electricity grids, hospital networks, and air traffic control systems are frequently the target of cybercriminals, including cyberterrorists. The potential threats of cyberattacks increase dramatically with a nation’s technical advancements. A breach in these areas has the potential to seriously harm the economy, jeopardize public safety, and interrupt essential services13.
Effects on Individuals: People are also directly impacted by cybercrime, particularly when it comes to crimes like identity theft and online blackmail. If their demands are not satisfied, cybercriminals may threaten to reveal private, sensitive, or even fake information. Such encounters can result in a loss of privacy, long-term psychological repercussions, and extreme emotional suffering. These are a few of the noteworthy consequences linked to cybercrimes, which affect India extensively. These crimes are widespread throughout the country and have an impact on both private citizens and governmental organizations14.
CYBERSPACE: AN ANALYSIS
The National Cyber Security Policy of 2013 describes cyberspace as a dynamic and interconnected environment shaped by the interaction of people, software, and services, all of which are supported by a global network of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) devices and systems15. This concept of cyberspace began to evolve during the 1990s, especially with the rapid rise of the internet. Today, it represents more than just a communication tool it has become a digital environment where people engage in activities like chatting, playing games, sharing ideas, and accessing services and information through websites and applications.
Cyberspace is now an essential part of everyday life. It acts as a platform for intellectual debates, political discussions, business transactions, and social interaction. In simple terms, it connects computers and people across the globe16. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines cyberspace as “the online world of computer networks, especially the Internet,” reinforcing its importance in modern communication.
Interestingly, cyberspace shares certain features with the physical world, such as place, size, distance, and route. But at the same time, it operates very differently. Unlike physical space, cyberspace has no fixed borders information can travel instantly from one part of the world to another, making it both powerful and unpredictable. In today’s strategic and military context, cyberspace is now considered the fifth domain of warfare, following land, sea, air, and outer space. Countries like the United States and members of NATO have already recognized it officially17. The reason is simple: cyberattacks can come from anywhere and target anyone, regardless of geographic boundaries. Whether it’s military, government, or civilian space, cyberspace has made national and international security more complex than ever before.
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN THE CYBERWORLD
In the modern era, cyberspace has emerged as the fifth domain of national security, alongside land, air, sea, and space. Between January 2017 and January 2018, over 22,000 Indian websites were hacked, including more than 100 official government portals18. This alarming number reflects the growing sophistication of cybercriminals, who continuously evolve their tools and techniques. As India pushes ahead with its Digital India mission, the risk to online safety and privacy becomes even more serious. With the Right to Privacy now recognized as a fundamental right by the Supreme Court in Justice K.S. Putt swamy v. Union of India (2017), protecting digital information is no longer optional it’s a constitutional mandate19. However, India’s cyber defense system still has significant gaps. There are no formal bug-reporting mechanisms, many sectors lack clear cybersecurity policies, and the country is yet to develop a robust cyberwarfare protection strategy20. Above all, there is a pressing need for a strong legal and regulatory framework that can respond swiftly to emerging threats. From identity theft and financial scams to cyberbullying and misinformation, the range of cybercrimes has widened. This situation is made worse by outdated laws and weak enforcement, which fail to keep pace with the rapidly evolving digital landscape 21.
Moreover, privacy violations have become common due to the misuse of personal data, often shared or sold without the user’s consent. Vulnerable groups such as women, children, and the elderly face higher risks of exploitation due to the digital divide and lack of awareness. The absence of strict laws to address modern issues like deepfake technology, child pornography, and intellectual property theft only worsens the situation22. The COVID-19 pandemic further highlighted these issues. In the name of public safety, digital surveillance and tracking apps were deployed, raising concerns about the erosion of personal freedoms and data security23.
To secure its digital future, India must strengthen its legal system, improve cybersecurity infrastructure, spread digital literacy, and build global partnerships to tackle cross-border cybercrimes. A proactive and inclusive approach is essential to ensure that technology empowers citizens without compromising their rights and freedoms.
Jurisdictional Challenges in Cyberspace
Jurisdiction poses a major legal hurdle in effectively addressing cybercrime, especially due to the borderless nature of the internet. In many cases, cybercriminals, their victims, and crucial digital evidence are all spread across different countries. This disrupts the traditional model of territorial jurisdiction, which is typically based on physical locations. Because data can move globally in seconds, determining which country has the legal authority to investigate or prosecute becomes highly complex.
This lack of physical boundaries leads to conflicts between domestic laws, international legal uncertainties, and delays in investigation or prosecution. It becomes especially difficult to obtain digital evidence, enforce court orders, or extradite cybercriminals when multiple jurisdictions are involved. As Ryngaert observes, “the absence of coherent cross-border enforcement mechanisms significantly limits international cooperation in cybercrime cases24.”
These jurisdictional limitations are clearly seen in legal disputes arising from online business transactions. Courts have had to reinterpret existing contract and tort laws to handle digital transactions conducted across borders25.
For example, in Impresario Entertainment & Hospitality Pvt. Ltd. v. S&D Hospitality, the Delhi High Court held that mere booking or placing an order online does not establish jurisdiction. The court ruled that a contract is not formed at the point of ordering but at the location where acceptance and confirmation of the transaction take place.
Similarly, in the landmark case of Renaissance Hotel Holdings, Inc. v. B. Vijaya Sai, the court declined to hear a suit based solely on an online hotel booking made abroad, emphasizing that virtual presence alone is insufficient to confer territorial jurisdiction in India26 .These rulings reflect a growing judicial trend of critically evaluating online actions in light of physical legal standards.
Legal Mechanisms for Protecting Digital Security in India
India’s approach to digital security is steadily evolving, guided by a combination of laws, policy initiatives, and institutional frameworks. At the heart of this framework is the Information Technology Act, 2000, which serves as the primary legislation dealing with cybercrime, data protection, and digital communications. This Act is supported by various rules and sector-specific guidelines that help enforce cybersecurity protocols and tackle offences in the online space27.
With the rising threat of cyberattacks and increasing digital dependency, the National Cyber Security Policy 2023 has been introduced to provide a more coordinated and strategic approach to cybersecurity. It focuses on strengthening digital infrastructure, promoting secure digital practices, and fostering a cyber-resilient environment across public and private sectors28.
In a major leap towards personal data protection, the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 (DPDP Act) was introduced. This legislation establishes a structured framework for the collection, storage, and processing of personal data. It also grants individuals rights over their personal information and imposes obligations on entities handling such data, making data privacy a core legal right29.
India’s cybersecurity infrastructure also involves several key authorities:
∙ Ministry of Home Affairs – oversees cybercrime enforcement through dedicated cybercrime wings30.
∙ Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) – responsible for framing digital policies and promoting cyber awareness31.
∙ Indian Cyber Crime Co-ordination Centre (I4C) a national-level platform for tackling cybercrime through capacity building and investigation support32.
∙ CERT-In (Indian Computer Emergency Response Team) acts as the national nodal agency for responding to cybersecurity threats33.
∙ National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC) protects systems and networks vital to national security and public safety34.
Recognizing the need to address cybercrime more directly, India’s criminal law has also undergone reforms. The Bhartiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 (BNS) includes specific provisions to handle digital offences. Sections such as:
Section 196 and 197– deal with hate speech, especially through social media or digital platforms.
Section 353 – targets misinformation that may disturb public peace.
Section 294 – broadens the definition of obscene content to include digital material like videos or messages35.
These updates reflect a stronger focus on regulating online behavior and tackling emerging threats in the digital world.
Additionally, the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023 (BSA) strengthens the evidentiary value of digital documents. Notably:
Section 57 recognizes electronic records like emails, texts, and social media posts as primary evidence, enhancing the speed and credibility of trials involving digital content. ∙
Section 63 introduces safeguards and standards for the admissibility of such evidence, ensuring it meets technical and legal scrutiny before it can be used in court36.
Cyber Child Pornography and the Need for Regulation
The rise of cyber child pornography is one of the darkest outcomes of the internet age. The digital world meant to connect and empower has sadly become a platform for some of the worst forms of exploitation37. Offenders take advantage of encrypted apps, dark web forums, and even everyday social media platforms to create, share, and view harmful content involving minors. What makes this even more horrifying is that these materials don’t just harm children once; the trauma continues every time the content is viewed or circulated again, robbing victims of their dignity and privacy for years to come.
In India, the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012 (POCSO) has been a significant legal step in addressing child sexual abuse. It criminalizes the use of children in pornographic acts and provides child-friendly procedures during trials. However, despite this legal backing, our laws are still catching up with how quickly these crimes are evolving online. Many offenders are based in other countries, and with limited global cooperation and differing cyber laws, it becomes hard to catch and punish them. Meanwhile, platforms hosting this content often act slowly or lack strong safeguards altogether.38
Solving this issue requires a combination of strict laws, faster enforcement, and better cooperation—both domestically and internationally. Tech companies must play a bigger role by installing stronger monitoring systems and reporting suspicious content quickly. International treaties, like the Budapest Convention on Cybercrime, can help countries work together, share data, and bring criminals to justice regardless of where they operate from39.
Conclusion
As India rapidly moves toward a digitally connected future, the challenges of cybercrime and data privacy are becoming more serious than ever. Our everyday lives be it banking, shopping, learning, or even social interactions are increasingly taking place online. With this shift, the risks have also grown: cyberattacks, identity theft, data breaches, and misuse of personal information are no longer rare incidents but everyday threats.
While the Information Technology Act, 2000, was a good starting point, it hasn’t kept up with the times. New and evolving cyber threats like phishing, sextortion, cyberstalking, and child exploitation online are not adequately addressed under current laws. Many cyber offenses remain bailable, punishments are often too mild to be effective, and there’s a lack of proper support for victims. Worse, there’s no strong system in place for reporting bugs or loopholes in online platforms, leaving users and organizations vulnerable.
What India needs now is not just stronger laws, but smarter ones. Laws must be updated to reflect the reality of today’s online risks and ensure stricter penalties for offenders. More importantly, privacy must be treated as a basic right, not just an afterthought. People deserve control over how their personal data is collected, used, and shared. The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, is a step in the right direction, but implementation will be key.
India should also look outward working with other countries and joining international treaties like the Budapest Convention on Cybercrime can improve our ability to track and stop cross-border cyber criminals.
At the heart of all this must be one core principle: people come first. Protecting digital rights, securing data, and ensuring accountability must become part of our digital growth story. Only then can India create a safe, trustworthy, and inclusive digital space for all.
Reference(S):
- The Information Technology Act, No. 21 of 2000, § 66, Acts of Parliament, 2000 (India).
- The Information Technology (Amendment) Act, No. 10 of 2009, Acts of Parliament, 2009 (India).
- Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology, National Cyber Security Policy (July 2, 2013), https://meity.gov.in.
- 4.Gaurav Saluja, Critical Assessment of the Information Technology Act, 2000 and Its Amendment, 2008 (Apr. 2023) (unpublished manuscript), https://ssrn.com/abstract=5262168.
- Priya Rao, Cyber Crime and Related Laws in India, 7(1) Int’l J. Rev. & Res. Soc. Sci. (2019), https://ijrrssonline.in/HTMLPaper.aspx?Journal=International+Journal+of+Reviews+and+Resea rch+in+Social+Sciences;PID=2019-7-1-48.
- Sudhanshu Sekhar Tripathy, A Comprehensive Survey of Cybercrimes in India Over the LastDecade, arXiv (May 2025), https://arxiv.org/abs/2505.23770.
- Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology, National Cyber Security Policy, Government of India (July 2, 2013).
- Sameeksha Shetty, Digital Predators: The Legal Landscape of Child Pornography in India, SSRN (Oct. 20, 2024), https://ssrn.com/abstract=5051692.
- Niranjana K. & Murugan Ramu, A Study on Cyber Child Pornography in India, Psychology & Education J., Apr. 2021, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351022212.
- Satyam Mangal, Safeguarding Digital Childhood: A Critical Analysis of the IT Act, 2000 in Addressing Cyberbegging and Sharenting, Indian J. L. & Tech. (May 2025), https://nluo.ac.in/storage/2025/05/9.-Safeguarding-Digital-Childhood.
- The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, No. 22 of 2023, Acts of Parliament, 2023 (India).
- Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology, Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code Rules, 2021, G.S.R. 139(E) (Feb. 25, 2021), https://www.meity.gov.in.
- National Cyber Security Policy-2013, Department of Electronic and Information Technology, available at https://nciipc.gov.in/documents/National_Cyb er_Security_Policy-2013.pdf,
- United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, “Convention on the Rights of the Child”, available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/ pages/crc.aspx Adrian Shahbaz, “The Rise of Digital Authorization”, Freedom House, October 2018.
1 National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), Crime in India Report 2023, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India.
2Information Technology Act, 2000; Indian Penal Code, 1860.
3 Rajeev Kshatriya, Digital Transactions and Cybersecurity in India: Financial Inclusion at Risk, 7 J. Digit. Econ. 112 (2019).
4 Mehak Bansal & Shreya Arora, AI-Driven Cybersecurity Systems: Indian J. Cyber L. & Tech. 88 (2021).
5 Ravi Sharma et al., Effectiveness of Cyber Laws in India: An Empirical Review, 12 L.J. India 65 (2022).
6 Richa Gupta & Aakash Malhotra, Psychological Implications of Cybercrime on Indian Victims, 5 Ind. J. Cyber Psychol. 43 (2023).
7 Nikhil Verma, Global Best Practices in Cybersecurity: Lessons for India from Estonia and the USA, 10 J. Sec. & Cyber 99 (2023).
8 Press Information Bureau, Digital India Programme, Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (2023), https://pib.gov.in.
9 Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI), Monthly Performance Indicators Report – December 2023, https://trai.gov.in.
10 National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India 2023 – Cyber Crimes, Ministry of Home Affairs (2024), https://ncrb.gov.in.
11 Information Technology Act, 2000, No. 21, Acts of Parliament, 2000 (India).
12 Ananya Singh, Data Breach Risks in Indian E-Commerce: A Cybersecurity Perspective, 14 J. Cyber L. & Pol’y 22, 25–28 (2022).
13 S. R. Das & Neha Chopra, Cybersecurity and Critical Infrastructure in India: An Emerging Threat Landscape, 18 Nat’l L.J. India 44, 47–49 (2023).
14 Pooja Sharma, Emotional and Legal Impact of Online Blackmail on Victims in India, 6 Indian J. Victimology 77, 79–83 (2023).
15 Ministry of Commc’n & Info. Tech., Gov’t of India, National Cyber Security Policy 2013 (July 2, 2013), available at https://www.cert-in.org.in.
16 Cyberspace, Merriam-Webster Dictionary, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cyberspace (last visited July 17, 2025).
17 Michael N. Schmitt, Cyber Operations and the Jus ad Bellum Revisited, 56 Colum. J. Transnat’l L. 609, 613–15 (2018).
18 Press Trust of India, Over 22,000 Indian Websites Hacked Between Jan 2017-Jan 2018: Govt, Hindustan Times (Apr. 4, 2018), https://www.hindustantimes.com.
19 Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) v. Union of India, (2017) 10 SCC 1.
20 Pavan Duggal, Cyber Warfare and National Security in India: Gaps in the Legal Regime, 25 Indian J. L. & Tech. 34, 37–39 (2022).
21 Aparna Vishwanathan, The Information Technology Act: A Critical Appraisal of India’s Cyber Law Framework, 17 Nat’l L. Sch. India Rev. 89, 91–94 (2021).
22 Richa Bhargava & S. Iyer, Gender and Digital Vulnerability: Risks of Cybercrime Against Women and Seniors in India, 13 J. Info. Sec. Stud. 58, 60–63 (2023).
23 Anjali Mehra, COVID-19 and the Rise of Digital Surveillance in India, 45 Econ. & Pol. Wkly. 76, 78–80 (2021).
24 Cedric Ryngaert, Jurisdiction in International Law 141 (2d ed. 2015).
25 Impresario Ent. & Hospitality Pvt. Ltd. v. S&D Hospitality, 2021 SCC Online Del 3223. 26 Renaissance Hotel Holdings, Inc. v. B. Vijaya Sai, (2018) 253 DLT 680 (Del. HC).
27 Information Technology Act, No. 21 of 2000, INDIA CODE (2000); Information Technology (Reasonable Security Practices and Procedures and Sensitive Personal Data or Information) Rules, 2011, G.S.R. 313(E) (India).
28Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology, National Cyber Security Policy 2023 (India), available at https://www.meity.gov.in.
29 Digital Personal Data Protection Act, No. 22 of 2023, INDIA CODE (2023).
30 Ministry of Home Affairs, Cyber Crime Prevention against Women and Children Scheme (India), available at https://www.mha.gov.in.
31 Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology, available at https://www.meity.gov.in.
32 Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C), Ministry of Home Affairs (India), available at https://cybercrime.gov.in.
33 Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In), Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology, available at https://www.cert-in.org.in.
34 National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC), available at https://www.nciipc.gov.in.
35 Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, No. 45 of 2023, 196, 197, 294, 353, INDIA CODE (2023).
36 Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, No. 47 of 2023, 57, 63, INDIA CODE (2023).
37 ECPAT International, Child Protection in the Digital Age: National Responses to Online Child Sexual Exploitation (2018), https://www.ecpat.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/2021_Global-Policy-Paper_Digital Age.pdf.
38 Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, No. 32 of 2012, 13, INDIA CODE (2012).
39 UNICEF, Legal and Policy Analysis of Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in South Asia (2021), https://www.unicef.org/rosa/reports/legal-analysis-online-child-sexual-exploitatio
